LD  TESTAMENT 
HISTORY 


LIFE  AND  RELIGION  SERIES 

EDITED  BY 

FRANK.  K.  SANDERS 

AND 

HENRY  A.  SHERMAN 


CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S    SONS 


LIFE  AND  RELIGION  SERIES 

EDITED   BY 

FRANK  K.  SANDEBS 

AND 

HENRY    A.  SHERMAN 


>. 


OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 


LIFE  AND  RELIGION  SERIES 

EDITED   BY 

FRANK   K.    SANDERS 

AND 

HENRY  A.   SHERMAN 


Concise  handbooks  for  those  who,  either  as  individuals 
or  in  colleges,  in  community  schools  of  religion,  or  in 
Bible  classes,  desire  a  proper  foundation  for  the  more 
detailed  study  of  the  Bible  or  of  related  subjects. 

VOLUMES 

Old  Testament  History.     {Now  ready) 
Old  Testament  Prophecy.     {Now  ready) 
Jesus  and  His  Teachings 
Beginnings  of  the  Christian  Church 
Historical  Development  of  Christianity 
Social  Ideals  and  Teachings  of  the  Bible 
The  World's  Living  Religions 
The  Ideals  of  Christian  Citizenship 
The  Development  of  Modern  Missions 
The  Missionary  Approach  to  Life  and  Religion 
Othsr  volumes  to  be  announced 


Life  and  Religion  Series  -^ 

~  1924 

OLD    TESTAMENT 
HISTORY 


BY 
FRANK  KNIGHT  SANDERS,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

BOMETIME  WOOL8ET  PROFESSOR  OF  BIBLICAL  LITEBATT7BE 

ra   TALE  UNIVERSITY 

DIBECTOB  OF  THE  BOARD  0»  MISSIONARY  PREPARATION 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

1922 


Copyright,  1922,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


Published  October,  1922 


PREFACE 

This  volume,  like  the  other  volumes  of  the  series, 
aims  to  furnish  to  the  untechnically  trained  reader  or 
student  a  succinct  yet  trustworthy  and  satisfying  in- 
troduction to  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  It  will 
lay  a  foundation  on  which  can  be  reared  an  illuminat- 
ing, constructive  understanding  of  the  Old  Testament 
as  a  whole.  A  well-balanced  knowledge  of  the  history 
found  in  the  Old  Testament  is  quite  essential  to  this 
larger  comprehension.  Such  knowledge  need  not  be 
in  close  detail  but  must  be  well  organized. 

This  volume  makes  four  specific  contributions  which 
will  repay  the  careful  reader  or  student.  Its  analyti- 
cal outline  of  the  history  by  chapters  will  enable  one 
to  carry  the  whole  history  in  mind  as  a  unity.  Again, 
its  assembling,  section  by  section,  of  all  of  the  actual 
historical  material  discussed  brings  the  student  face 
to  face  with  the  facts  with  which  he  deals.  Moreover, 
its  emphasis  on  essentials  brings  into  relief  the  data 
which  every  thoughtful  student  of  the  Bible  ought 
to  know  and  indicates  their  value  estimated  from 
the  standpoints  of  history,  religion,  ethics,  and  life. 
Finally,  its  brief  compass  encourages  the  student  to 
actually  achieve  the  abihty  to  survey  the  whole  Old 
Testament  in  a  historical  perspective  which  is  sane, 
balanced,  and  adequate  for  all  foundational  needs. 
His  task  thereafter  will  be  the  filling  in  of  details. 

No  space  is  given  in  this  series  to  argument  over 
technical  details.    For  these  the  student  must  go  to 


vi  PREFACE 

larger  volumes,  to  which  ample  references  are  given  in 
the  appendices.  The  desire  has  been  to  make  a  read- 
able volume,  yet  suited,  in  connection  with  Old  Testa- 
ment Prophecy,  for  use  as  a  text-book  for  college  classes 
aiming  at  a  rapid  survey  of  the  Old  Testament,  for 
Bible  classes,  for  teacher-training  classes  in  community 
schools  of  religion  and  elsewhere,  and  furnishing  the 
essential  data  for  profitable  discussion. 

The  Appendix  furnishes  apparatus  for  the  aid  of  the 
teacher  or  class  leader.  Every  reader  can  test  his 
grasp  of  Old  Testament  history  by  answering  the  ques- 
tions in  the  fourth  section  of  the  Appendix.  For  class- 
room discussions  the  suggested  topics  in  Appendix  V 
will  be  found  useful.  No  questions  are  raised  that 
cannot  reasonably  be  discussed  by  those  using  this 
book.  The  first  four  volumes  of  the  series  of  which 
this  is  a  part  give  a  correct  perspective  for  both  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament.  Each  volume,  however, 
is  complete  in  itself. 

No  one  should  expect  that  the  study  of  so  small  a 
volume  will  afford  a  mastery  of  Old  Testament  history. 
The  book  has  a  less  pretentious  but  more  useful  aim. 
It  will  lay  a  secure  basis  for  an  appreciation  of  the  dig- 
nity, interest,  and  value  of  Old  Testament  history,  for 
its  intelligent  interpretation,  and  for  a  lifelong  enjoy- 
ment of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  whole. 

The  Editors. 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 

Introduction 1 

I.    Pre-Mosaic    Beginnings    of    Hebrew   His- 
tory (Before  1200  B.  C.) 4 

II.    The   Formative  Influence   of  the   Great 

Le.\der,  Moses  (About  1200-1150  B.  C.)    .       17 

HI.  The  Gradual  Nationalization  of  the  He- 
brew People  (About  1150-937  B.  C.)  •  •    .       31 

rV.    The  Century  of  Rededication  to  Mosaic 

Ideai^  (937-840  B.  C.) 46 

V.  The  Century  of  the  Growth  of  Each  King- 
dom to  Its  Greatest  Extent  (842-740 
B.C.) 59 

VI.    The  Century  of  Vain  Resistance  against 

Assyrian  Aggression  (740-639  B.  C.)    .     .       69 

Vn.  Judah's  Closing  Half  Century:  A  Period 
OF  Gradual  Political  Decline  (639-586 
B.C.) 80 

Vm.    The  Babylonian  Exile  (586-538  B.  C.)  .  .   .      93 

IX.    The  Building  of  the  Second  Temple  (538- 

516  B.  C.) 100 

X.    The  Firm  Establishment  of  Judaism  (516  to 

About  330  B.  C.) 107 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XI.    The  Two  and  a  Half  Centtjries  of  Greek 

AND    MaCCABEAN  RuLE  IN  PALESTINE   (330- 

63  B.  C.) 121 

Xn.    A  General  Survey  of  Old  Testament  His- 
tory   132 

Appendix — 

i.    old  test.iment  history  by  its  natural 

PERIODS 143 

n.   GENERAL  REFERENCE  LITERATURE  FOR 

FURTHER  STUDY 146 

in.   REFERENCE  LITERATURE  FOR  EACH  STUDY   149 

IV.   QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW 152 

V.   SUBJECTS  FOR  RESEARCH  AND  CLASS  DIS- 
CUSSION   156 


OLD  TESTAMENT  fflSTORY 


OLD   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

INTRODUCTION 

A  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  historical  ma- 
terial of  the  Old  Testament  is  of  real  value  to  all  who 
teach  any  portion  of  the  Bible  or  who  give  religious 
instruction.  The  Old  Testament  records  the  religious 
growth  of  the  Hebrew  people  from  a  stage  of  very  sim- 
ple religious  development  until  they  became  fitted  to 
be  instrumental  in  conveying  to  humankind  sound  re- 
ligious impressions  regarding  God,  man,  and  the  uni- 
verse. God  made  use  of  other  peoples  and  even  of 
other  religious  achievements,  but  the  predominantly 
significant  historical  religious  movement,  which  opened 
the  way  for  the  best  religious  life  of  to-day,  came  to 
the  world  by  way  of  the  Hebrew  people  and  was  given 
an  adequate  record  in  the  Old  Testament. 

This  historical  development  ought  to  be  clearly  un- 
derstood by  every  student  of  religion,  whether  in  the 
pulpit,  in  the  school  of  religion,  or  on  the  mission  field, 
at  home  or  abroad.  It  is  fundamental  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  whole  revelation  of  God  to  mankind. 
That  revelation  was  an  historical  process,  centuries  in 
length,  its  progress  slow  at  some  periods,  exceedingly 
rapid  at  other  times.  Students  of  the  Old  Testament 
should  have  a  real  grasp  of  the  whole  course  of  this 
progress.  Many  never  see  it  in  its  proper  balance  and 
with  a  true  perspective.  Of  the  twelve  or  more  cen- 
turies of  Hebrew  and  Jewish  history  from  the  days  of 
Moses  down  to  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  four  were  con- 

1 


2  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

sumed  by  the  Hebrew  people  in  getting  ready  to  make 
real  history;  during  the  next  four  a  climax  of  rehgious 
culture  was  reached;  the  last  four  centuries  counted 
for  conservatism  rather  than  for  advance.  Manifestly, 
the  four  centuries  following  800  B.  C.  should  be  those 
most  carefully  explored  and  interpreted.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  these  centuries  are  rarely,  except  by  special  stu- 
dents, given  their  proper  proportion  of  attention.  This 
volume  seeks  to  show  their  creative  contributions. 

A  student  of  religious  subjects  needs  more  than  a 
mere  knowledge  of  Old  Testament  data.  It  is  desira- 
ble that,  unassisted  in  any  w^ay  whatsoever,  he  should 
gain  the  ability  to  think  at  will  through  the  events  of 
these  important  centuries;  to  rate  at  its  true  relative 
value  each  stage  of  the  political,  social,  and  religious 
progress  which  they  embody;  and  to  visualize  each 
stage  or  period  as  a  complete  unit  with  its  great  lead- 
ers, its  significant  events,  its  religious  thinking,  and  its 
outstanding  contribution  to  the  historical  process  of 
upward  growth.  The  Old  Testament  thus  becomes  a 
real  possession  at  the  command  of  the  student  or 
teacher.  The  interpretation  of  any  portion  is  regu- 
lated and  illumined  by  the  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  the  whole  range  of  development.  Such  knowledge 
will  become  wholly  satisfying  only  after  prolonged 
study,  since  the  Old  Testament  is  a  library  of  history 
and  literature  rather  than  one  single  book,  yet  the 
process  can  be  begun  rightly,  and,  thus  begun,  will 
richly  reward  the  student  from  the  very  beginning. 

The  rapid  study  outlined  in  this  volume  will  enable 
a  student  to  lay  the  proper  foundation  for  a  right  be- 
ginning. The  one  who  seeks  a  mastery  of  the  whole 
Bible  and  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole  must  pay  the  neces- 
sary price.  Such  a  grasp  will  not  be  the  outcome  of 
one  winter's  study,  but  of  that  of  years.     The  process 


INTRODUCTION  S 

is  more  than  the  adding  of  fresh  data  to  those  already- 
known.  It  involves  the  constant  realignment  of  one's 
whole  body  of  knowledge  regarding  the  Scriptures  in 
accordance  with  each  group  of  freshly  gathered  data. 

One  very  definite  religious  advantage  is  gained  by 
the  careful,  persistent  study  of  Old  Testament  History 
and  Literature.  It  is  the  gradual  organization  and 
enrichment  of  personal  religious  experience.  The  very 
lines  of  teaching  and  experience  which  matured  that 
nation's  thoughtful  leaders  bring  maturity  and  a  sense 
of  responsibility  and  relationship  to  the  Divine  to 
young  and  old  to-day.  A  thoughtful  study  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  in  itself  a  course  of  religious  training. 
This  course  is  all  the  more  valuable  because  the  final 
expression  or  at  least  the  most  satisfying  expression  of 
matured  religious  experience  was  given  by  Jesus  Christ. 
The  revelation  that  preceded  his  day  was  at  best  a 
helpful  introduction  to  the  perfect  revelation  to  which 
he  gave  expression  of  the  Divine  in  relationship  with 
humanity,  of  the  rich  possibilities  of  human  religious 
experience  and  of  a  true  philosophy  of  the  world  of 
sentient  life.  Yet  one  who  has  trodden  the  historical 
pathway  which  led  up  to  the  Christian  era  is  far  better 
prepared  to  appreciate  Christ's  outlook  over  life. 

The  plan  of  this  volume,  as  of  the  others  in  this 
series,  magnifies  the  actual  Biblical  material  at  the  ex- 
pense of  interpretation.  By  the  outlines  printed  in 
smaller  type  the  student  is  enabled  to  traverse  for  him- 
self the  whole  range  of  Biblical  history  in  historical  se- 
quence. The  comments  are  purposely  restricted  to 
such  as  clarify  and  organize  the  historical  facts. 

The  limitations  of  this  volume  forbid  the  discussion 
of  each  distinct  era  in  Hebrew  history  by  itself.  An 
outline  of  the  history  which  aims  to  do  full  justice  to 
each  period  will  be  found  in  the  appendix. 


PRE-MOSAIC  BEGINNINGS  OF  HEBREW 
HISTORY 

Genesis  1-50  (Befobe  1200  B.  C.) 

The  Book  of  Genesis  is  a  book  of  beginnings.  It 
covers  an  indefinite  range  of  centuries  from  the  dawn 
of  Hfe  to  the  days  of  Moses.  It  is  an  extraordinary 
book.  It  has  some  of  the  quahties  of  a  drama;  fre- 
quently it  seems  as  personal  as  a  biography;  it  deals 
epically  with  a  great  sweep  of  history;  it  includes  many 
data  which  seem  whimsical  and  petty.  As  a  unit, 
however,  Genesis  furnishes  in  three  ways  a  strong  in- 
troduction to  the  biblical  story  of  the  centuries  of  ex- 
panding Hebrew  life.  It  presents  the  origins  of  the 
Hebrews  as  a  people,  chosen  in  some  sense  to  do  their 
part  in  the  world's  growth.  It  reveals  deep  qualities 
of  character  as  the  justification  of  that  choice.  It  ex- 
presses the  broad,  sound,  basal  religious  convictions 
which  differentiated  them  from  their  neighboring  and 
related  peoples,  and  made  them  useful  channels  of 
God's  revelation  of  Himself  to  the  world. 

A  discriminating  reader  quickly  realizes  that  Gen- 
esis is  no  such  balanced,  smoothly  moving,  historical 
narrative  as  I  Samuel.  Charming  narratives  alternate 
with  mere  catalogues  of  names.  It  is  a  treasure-house 
of  richly  varied  material,  hard  to  unify.  It  is,  never- 
theless, as  a  whole  a  moving  survey,  covering  many 
centuries,  which  traces  the  gradual  emergence  of  the 

4 


PRE-MOSAIC  BEGINNINGS  5 

Hebrews  into  the  realm  of  history  as  a  people  for  whom 
God  had  marked  out  a  noble  destiny. 

Such  surveys  are  not  made  on  the  spot.  They  are 
interpretations  of  ages  that  have  passed  away.  The 
Genesis  we  read  is  a  book  with  a  long  literary  history. 
It  was  based  upon  at  least  three  earlier  Hebrew  writings, 
each  noble  in  quality  and  reverent  in  purpose.  One 
of  these,  by  a  writer  of  prophetic  temperament,  aimed 
to  show  God's  share  in  the  origin,  the  early  history,  and 
the  growth  of  the  Hebrew  race.  From  this  book  came 
the  bulk  of  the  direct  historical  narrative  in  Genesis. 
Another,  written  also  by  a  man  of  prophetic  mind  and 
probably  at  a  httle  later  date,  sought  to  commemorate 
the  great  leadership  of  the  early  eras  and  to  indicate 
the  sacred  spots  where  these  men  of  God  had  had  un- 
forgetable  experiences  of  the  Divine.  This  book  was 
the  chief  source  of  the  remarkable  portraitures  in 
Genesis.  The  third  was  probably  written  by  one  of 
priestly  training,  who  believed  that  religion  and  its 
institutions  were  the  most  important  heritage  of  his 
people  from  that  distant  past.  His  narrative  furnished 
the  greater  part  of  the  impressive  religious  setting  of 
Genesis.  The  author  of  Genesis,  a  man  of  compre- 
hensive understanding,  sought  to  combine  into  one 
narrative  the  tested  values  of  each  of  these  helpful  nar- 
ratives. His  method  seems  to  have  been  that  of  com- 
pilation. As  far  as  possible  he  made  literal  extracts 
from  these  earlier  writings,  altering  or  adjusting  only 
so  far  as  was  necessary  to  make  a  readable  narrative. 
That  he  adopted  this  method  is  a  cause  for  devout 
thankfulness.  The  student  of  to-day  can  be  assured 
that  Genesis  represents  the  divine  illumining  of  four 
great  souls  instead  of  one,  and  can  rejoice  that  it  is  the 
precious  deposit  of  centuries  of  religious  interpretation 
and  growth.    The  fact  that  Genesis  is  a  compilation 


6  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

explains  adequately  the  surprising  turns  of  style,  view- 
point, and  religious  experience,  encountered  not  only 
in  the  first  two  or  three  chapters,  but  repeatedly. 
Genesis  records  the  events  of  centuries  but  reflects  the 
ideas  of  many  more. 

The  fifty  chapters  of  Genesis  cover  the  history  of  the 
world,  as  these  writers  knew  it,  down  to  the  thirteenth 
century  B.  C.  Their  available  data  were  the  perplex- 
ing, crudely  historical  traditions  which  are  all  that  re- 
main from  the  primitive  days  of  any  race.  These  data 
represented  to  the  writers  a  distant  past.  They  were 
interpreted  with  real  insight  and  with  loving  apprecia- 
tion to  show  through  the  legends  of  racial  beginnings 
and  through  local  traditions  and  tribal  memoranda 
the  stirrings  of  a  great  God-given  impulse  toward  a  new 
type  of  national  life.  The  call  of  a  people  by  God  to 
achieve  what  no  other  people  could  do  so  well  was  the 
golden  thread  by  means  of  which  the  writers  of  Genesis 
found  their  way  out  of  the  mysteries  of  primitive  his- 
tory. This  idea  caused  its  author  to  personalize  the 
narrative,  giving  it  human  values  and  vividness,  and 
making  it  permanently  useful.  Instead  of  telling  the 
story  of  these  centuries  by  periods,  he  related  it  by 
patriarchs.  It  is  not  the  story  of  the  third  millennium 
B.  C.,  but  that  of  Abraham,  Jacob,  and  Joseph.  Thus 
Genesis  became  something  infinitely  greater  than  an 
accurate  tradition.  It  is  a  real  Bible,  a  writing  which 
drives  home  the  conviction  that  God  is  in  His  world 
and  that  history  exhibits  the  gradual  outworking  of 
His  plans. 

I.    The  Narratives  of  Human  Beginnings   (Genesis 
i-ii). 
The  first  eleven  chapters  of  Genesis  embody  the  ideas 
which  were  held  by  the  Hebrew  people  about  the  be- 


PRE-MOSAIC  BEGINNINGS  7 

ginnings  of  human  history.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  or  even  later,  all  reverent  students 
of  Scripture  held  that,  because  these  declarations  were 
found  in  the  Bible,  they  must  be  upheld  to  the  least 
detail  as  having  divine  authority.  The  past  half  cen- 
tury has  conferred  three  inestimable  boons  upon  a 
Bible-lo\'ing,  reverent  Christianity  seeking  a  truer  in- 
terpretation of  Scripture.  It  has,  in  the  first  place, 
caused  the  general  acceptance  of  the  sciences  of  geology, 
ethnology,  archaeology,  and  the  like  as  being  on  the 
whole  trustworthy  interpreters  of  the  many  unsolved 
mysteries  of  the  beginnings  of  the  universe.  For  hght 
on  these  origins,  human  or  otherwise,  we  turn  to  them. 
Again,  it  has  brought  to  light  the  rich  earher  heritage 
of  the  Hebrews  as  a  race.  The  astonishingly  rich  and 
instructive  results  of  archaeological  and  linguistic  re- 
searches in  the  Assyro-Baby Ionian  and  Syria-Palestinian 
regions  and  in  Egypt  have  shown  beyond  contention 
that  the  Hebrew  stories  of  Genesis  are  essentially  one 
with  a  larger  body  of  older  traditions.  The  declara- 
tions of  Genesis  1-11  are  paralleled  with  curious  accu- 
racy and  increasing  completeness  by  those  of  the 
literatures  so  long  buried.  But  the  third  and  greatest 
advantage  to  the  Christian  interpreter  of  Genesis  con- 
ferred by  the  past  half  century  has  been  due  to  a  close 
comparison  between  these  early  traditions  as  found  in 
Babylonian  literature  and  the  same  traditions  as  given 
in  Genesis.  While  a  kinship  is  manifest,  they  seem 
transformed  from  stories  which  are  more  or  less  ridic- 
ulous into  stories  which  are  sublime.  This  transfor- 
mation was  exactly  what  made  the  difference  between 
a  mere  traditional  story  of  a  world  coming  into  being 
under  the  conflicting  will  of  many  gods  and  the  sublime 
account  of  its  orderly  creation  by  one  divine  Mind,  or 
of  a  deluge  brought  on  by  jealousies  among  the  gods 


8  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

and  a  deluge  through  which  God  gave  a  corrupted  world 
a  fresh  ethical  start.  The  Hebrew  writers  used  the 
traditional  material  to  serve  as  a  convenient,  familiar 
vehicle  for  a  series  of  declarations  of  fundamental 
religious  importance.  These  religious  ideas  are  those 
for  which  the  reader  should  look.  They  go  to  the  very 
heart  of  human  religious  experience.  They  make  these 
chapters  a  suitable  and  adequate  introduction  to  the 
whole  course  of  history  which  the  Bible  unfolds. 

The  true  God  revealed  In  His  work  of  creation.     Genesis  1 : 1-2 :  4a. 

The  Divine  provisions  for  man's  perfect  development.     2 :  4b-25. 

Man's  deliberate  disobedience  of  the  divine  commands  and  the 
tragic  consequences.     3 : 1-24. 

Cain,  his  brother's  murderer,  sentenced  to  be  a  perpetual  wanderer. 
4 :  1-16. 

His  descendants,  those  of  Seth  and  the  ten  antediluvians.  4  :  17- 
5:32. 

The  flood  God's  radical  cure  for  persistent  sinfulness:  its  preva- 
lence, the  preservation  of  a  righteous  group,  the  new  covenant 
of  promise  for  mankind.     6  :  1-9  :  17. 

Noah's  blessing  of  Shem,  the  forefather  of  all  Semitic  peoples. 
9:18-28. 

The  nations  of  the  Hebrew  world  and  their  relationships.     10. 

How  different  languages  came  to  be  spoken.     11 :  1-9. 

The  genealogical  line  from  Shem  to  Abraham.     11 :  10-26. 

Two  great  motives  of  the  author  of  Genesis  are 
clearly  revealed  by  a  careful  study  of  these  chapters,  the 
desire  to  exhibit  the  direct  descent  from  the  first  human 
being  to  Abraham,  and  the  desire  to  show  the  adequate 
religious  foundations  of  the  history  to  be  related.  The 
important  element  of  these  narratives  does  not  lie  in 
the  facts  which  they  relate.  There  is  no  real  value  in 
determining  the  geological  accuracy  of  the  stately  poem 
which  describes  God's  work  of  creation.  It  is  even 
less  important  to  locate  the  garden  of  Eden  or  to  dis- 
cover whether  a  vessel  of  the  dimensions  of  the  Ark 
could  hold  every  known  species  of  beast.     Nor  is  it 


PRE-MOSAIC  BEGINNINGS 

supremely  important  for  the  average  student  to  dis- 
tinguish accurately  each  strand  of  original  narrative  in 
Genesis.  The  heart  of  these  chapters  is  the  true  re- 
ligious idealism  which  the  writer  expressed  through 
these  ancient  stories.  What  he  really  aimed  to  set  forth 
was  the  sovereignty  of  God  in  His  world.  His  gracious 
purposes  and  His  goodness,  His  watchful  attitude 
toward  the  world  He  has  made,  man's  unique  likeness 
to  God,  his  dominant  place  in  God's  universe,  his  moral 
responsibility,  the  sure  consequences  of  sinfulness,  the 
never-ending  struggle  with  evil,  God's  share  in  pro- 
moting the  survival  of  the  morally  fit  in  the  world.  His 
constant  affording  of  opportunity  for  righteous  prog- 
ress, the  brotherhood  of  humankind,  and  God's  active 
share  in  world  progress.  These  are  great  ideas.  They 
make  history  not  merely  intelligible  but  inspiring. 
One  who  reviews  them  can  see  how  wonderfully  Gen- 
esis 1-11  introduces  the  Biblical  story. 

2.    The  World  as  It  Was  About  2000  B.  C. 

The  end  of  the  third  millennium  before  Christ  was 
a  turning-point  in  world  history.  It  marked  the  be- 
ginnings of  history  as  we  are  accustomed  to  measure 
it.  At  about  that  date  Babylonian  civilization,  profit- 
ing by  a  thousand  years  of  slow  but  steady  cultural 
advance,  was  imperially  organized  and  estabhshed  by 
the  famous  Hammurabi.  At  about  the  same  time,  in 
the  Nile  valley,  the  Egyptian  civilization  of  the  feudal 
age  reached  its  peak  of  prosperity.  These  two  genu- 
inely cultured  nations  dominated  the  world  of  that  day. 

It  was  not  a  large  world  as  compared  with  ours, 
hardly  greater  than  the  Turkish  empire  of  half  a  cen- 
tury ago.  Much  of  it  was  desert  or  mountainous. 
The  portion  that  counted  most  constituted  a  "fertile 
crescent"  with  the  Nile  valley  at  one  extreme  and  the 


10  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

Tigris-Euphrates  valley  at  the  other.  What  we  know 
as  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia  lay  between 
these  two  centres  of  civilization,  Asia  Minor  being  a 
sort  of  '  *  hinterland. ' '  Settled  groups  of  Canaanites  ^  in- 
habited Palestine;  the  Phoenicians  held  the  coast;  the 
Amorite  clans  inhabited  Syria;  the  Hittites  were  be- 
coming formidable  in  Asia  Minor;  and  the  Assyrians 
were  a  rapidly  developing  people  on  the  upper  Tigris. 
Over  the  habitable  desert  roamed  many  independent 
tribes. 

It  was  a  rapidly  changing  world.  Its  law  was  force. 
Those  who  had  vigor  and  enterprise  but  no  wealth 
looked  covetously  upon  the  resources  of  the  peoples  of 
the  settled  parts.  Great  changes  of  environment  were 
often  taking  place.  Organization  and  growth  were  the 
price  of  continuing  existence  anywhere.  Peoples  were 
consciously  in  the  making.  Leadership  had  its  utmost 
opportunity. 

It  was  a  world  whose  variety  and  accessibility  gave 
promise  of  a  strong  future.  Within  it  were  the  heirs 
of  a  stable  civilization  already  ancient  and  many-sided. 
Within  it  also  were  restless,  roaming  peoples  of  very 
primitive  culture.  Along  the  whole  length  of  the 
crescent  was  a  stream  of  interchange  and  activity. 
The  opportunity  was  thus  afforded  for  the  rapid  devel- 
opment of  a  yet  higher  civilization. 

3.    The  Gradual  Development  of  a  Hebrew  People. 

Genesis  12-50  tells  the  story  of  the  emergence  of  the 
Hebrew  clans  into  the  light  of  history.  In  the  closing 
chapters  the  reigning  Pharaoh  assigns  lands  within  his 
Egyptian  domains  to  them.  From  Egypt  they  were 
dehvered  in  the  twelfth  century  B.  C.     The  length  of 

1  Canaanites  and  Amorites  were  probably  the  same  people,  at  least  very  closely 


PRE-MOSAIC  BEGINNINGS  11 

their  stay  In  Egypt  and  their  earlier  history  are  mat- 
ters which  are  quite  obscure. 

Genesis  seems  at  first  sight  to  relate  the  early  his- 
tory in  a  very  simple  and  clear  fashion,  declaring  that 
the  Hebrews  were  the  descendants  of  Jacob  who  was 
the  grandson  of  Abraham,  who  was  the  single  ancestor 
of  all.  But  such  a  statement  overlooks  many  of  the 
data  which  these  chapters  furnish,  and  many  others 
which  archaeological  research  has  brought  to  light.  It 
seems  clear,  however,  that  the  Hebrews  were  of  desert 
stock,  that  they,  as  known  in  later  history,  developed 
out  of  several  groups  of  tribes,  only  one  of  which  was 
surely  in  Egypt,  and  that  the  exact  movements  of  these 
groups  cannot  be  traced  with  assurance  in  the  varied 
records  of  Genesis.  These  conclusions  being  accepted, 
it  is  equally  true  that  the  most  important  and  directive 
section  of  the  Hebrews  did  find  its  way  to  Egypt,  there 
to  undergo  varied  experiences. 

It  is  clear  that  the  Hebrews  as  a  race  were  children 
of  the  desert.  Probably  they  were  a  part  of  that  great 
migration  of  desert  peoples  into  the  more  habitable  and 
fertile  regions  of  western  Asia  which  took  place  in  the 
middle  centuries  of  the  second  millennium  before 
Christ.  They  recognized  a  direct  kinship  with  the 
Aramaean  peoples;  they  also  claimed  Babylonian  de- 
scent. The  exact  proportions  of  their  ancestral  blood 
it  is  impossible  now  to  determine.  Of  more  importance 
is  the  implied  claim  that  the  Hebrew  heritage  was  of 
the  best.  A  desert-bred  people  may  have  choice  lead- 
ership. 

This  desert  heritage  accounted  for  three  important 
facts  which  need  to  be  understood  as  underlying  all 
Hebrew  beginnings.  When  first  appearing  in  history 
as  a  recognized  human  group,  the  Hebrews  were  nomads, 
wandering  folk,  dwellers  in  tents,  loving  broad  acres. 


12  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

They  were  at  this  time  organized  by  clans  or  famihes, 
each  ver>'  independent,  the  clan,  not  the  individual, 
being  their  unit  of  society.  Their  religious  life  was 
very  simple.  Exodus  6  :  3  recognizes  this  fact.  Their 
religious  life,  like  that  of  all  nomads,  resembled  that  of 
a  child;  it  was  imaginative,  simple,  direct,  unreflective. 
We  may  be  very  grateful  that  the  prophetic  historians 
put  the  traditions  of  these  formative  centuries  into  a 
form  so  strongly  personalized.  The  patriarchs  may 
have  been  idealized  even  to  a  large  extent,  but,  even 
so,  the  resultant  portraitures  reflected  the  historic 
ideals  of  the  race.  Through  the  loving  pen  of  the  pa- 
triot we  reach  sound  ideals  of  racial  character  and  pur- 
pose. Abraham,  Jacob,  and  Joseph  embody  in  rich  de- 
tail the  qualities  which  gave  the  Hebrews  a  working 
place  in  God's  world.  As  personalities  they  are  richly 
deserving  of  study. 

4.  The  Stories  Relating  to  Abraham  (Genesis  11 : 
27-25 :  18). 
These  chapters  contain  a  series  of  fascinating  narra- 
tives about  Abraham  and  his  people.  They  are  so 
straightforward  and  vivid  as  to  make  the  reader  forget 
that  they  describe  the  origins  of  a  race.  They  por- 
tray a  great  character. 

The  migration  of  Abraham,   the  Semite,   to   Canaan.     Genesis 

11 :  27-12  :  9. 
His  great-heartedness  in  dealing  with  Lot,  his  kinsman.     13  :  1-18. 
His  prowess  and  dignity.     14. 
His  covenants  with  God.     15,  17. 
The  strengthening  of  Abraham's  faith  in  God's  justice.     18;  19: 

1-14,  24-28. 
How  Abraham  met  the  supreme  test  of  loyalty  to  God.     21 : 1-8; 

22:1-19. 
His  purchase  of  a  burial  place.     23. 
The  finding  of  Rebekah  for  his  son  Isaac.     24. 
The  other  lines  of  descent  from  Abraham.     16;  21 :  9-21;  25  :1-18. 


PRE-MOSAIC  BEGINNINGS  13 

T^e  accuracy  with  which  these  narratives  portray 
a  desert  chieftain  of  the  highest  class  and  his  customs 
is  almost  uncanny.  They  likewise  depict  a  great  per- 
sonality, large-minded,  far-seeing,  clothed  with  re- 
sponsibility, hospitable,  self-respecting,  coiu*ageous, 
unselfish,  courteous,  truly  devoted  to  God.  Abraham's 
character  stood  all  reasonable  tests.  He  was  a  man  of 
his  age,  not  of  ours;  but  he  lived  a  life  in  fellowship 
with  the  Unseen.  He  had  the  qualities  of  a  great 
pioneer,  for  he  ventured  forth  for  a  principle  and  with- 
held nothing.  His  portraiture  is  an  impressive  sermon 
to  any  age. 

The  quality  of  these  narratives  is  remarkable.  The 
stories  of  Abraham's  departure  (12 :  1-8),  of  his  deal- 
ings with  Lot  (13:  1-18),  of  the  blood  covenant  with 
God  (15  :  1-20),  of  the  visit  of  the  angels  (18),  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Isaac  (22 :  1-19),  of  the  bargaining  with  the 
Hittites  (23),  and  of  the  wooing  of  Rebekah  (24)  are 
inimitable  sketches.  They  are  masterpieces  of  litera- 
ture, while  being  at  the  same  time  a  reservoir  of  social 
and  religious  data  of  the  first  importance. 

5.    The  Stories  Which  Centre  About  Jacob  (25 :  19- 
35:29). 

These  narratives  seem  to  trace  the  origin  of  the 
whole  Hebrew  commonwealth  to  Jacob  as  one  ancestor, 
counting  each  tribe  as  having  descended  from  one  of 
his  sons.  But  the  Bible  itself  furnishes  evidence  that 
the  Hebrew  people,  as  known  in  history,  were  a  mixed 
race,  growing  by  adoption  as  well  as  by  natural  descent. 
The  exact  reconciliation  of  these  apparently  opposite 
facts  may  never  be  possible.  It  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  adopted  tribes  were  those  described  as  the 
descendants  of  concubine  mothers.  Whatever  the  real 
historical  explanation  of  the  origin  of  all  Israel  may  be. 


14  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

there  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  was  an  ancestor, 
Jacob,  from  whom  all  the  Hebrews  of  later  centuries 
took  pride  in  tracing  their  descent,  that  of  his  unques- 
tioned descendants  a  representative  section  found  their 
way  eventually  to  Egypt,  and  that  these  inimitable 
narratives  about  him  embody  a  series  of  studies  in 
character  transformation,  which  are  priceless.  Their 
picture  of  patriarchal  nomadic  conditions,  of  the  steady 
increase  in  prosperity  and  importance  of  the  tribesmen, 
and  of  an  eventual  transfer  to  Egypt  because  of  famine 
is  wholly  in  accordance  with  probable  fact.  The  essen- 
tial value  of  the  narratives  lies,  however,  in  their  life- 
like studies  of  moral  growth. 

The  two  sons  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah :  Esau,  the  rude,  thoughtless 
hunter;  Jacob,  the  gentle,  crafty,  but  far-sighted  home-dweller. 
Genesis  25 :  19-34. 

How  Rebekah  and  Jacob  obtained  for  Jacob  by  fraud  the  patriar- 
chal blessing  and  the  outcome.     27  :  1-45. 

Jacob's  vision  of  God  at  Bethel  and  his  vow  of  faithful  service. 
28 :  1-5,  10-22. 

How  Jacob  married  Leah  and  Rachel  in  Haran  and  became  wealthy 
by  matching  his  cunning  against  that  of  their  father.  29 :  1- 
30 :  43. 

His  eager  return  to  Canaan,  his  homeland,  having  made  a  covenant 
of  peace  with  Laban,  his  father-in-law.     31 :  1-55. 

His  scheme  for  satisfying  Esau's  revengefulness.     32:  3-21;  33. 

His  moral  transformation  at  the  Jabbok.     32 :  22-32. 

The  new  Jacob  in  whose  heart  religion  became  a  great  reality.     35. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  distinctiveness  of  these 
loving  yet  faithful  portraits.  The  great-hearted  Abra- 
ham with  his  unselfishness,  courage,  and  faith  was  no 
more  in  fellowship  with  the  Unseen  than  Jacob,  the 
crafty  and  unscrupulous,  yet  wise  and  persevering, 
came  to  be.  The  generous  but  shallow  Esau,  the 
scheming  and  masterful  Rebekah,  the  greedy  Laban, 
like  the  small-minded  Lot,  are  to  be  studied  as  ser- 
mons in  biography.     Each  characterization  carries  its 


PRE-MOSAIC   BEGINNINGS  15 

own  moral.     So  does  the  history  of  Jacob.     He  paid 
well  for  his  craftiness. 

6.  The  Stories  Which  Centre  About  Joseph  (37-50). 
These  beautiful  narratives,  so  full  of  charm,  are  like- 
wise full  of  moral  idealism.  They  uphold  sturdy  con- 
ceptions of  integrity,  trustworthiness,  sincerity,  and 
faith.  The  fact  that  the  early  patriarchal  traditions 
took  such  a  form  instead  of  mere  tales  of  prowess  is  a 
first-rate  proof  of  the  innate  idealism  of  the  Hebrew 
mind.  Historically  they  tell  the  story  of  the  transfer 
of  a  large  portion,  at  least,  of  the  Hebrew  clans  to 
Egypt,  where  Hebrew  history  really  began. 

Joseph,  Jacob's  favorite  son,  sold  by  his  brothers  into  Egyptian 

slavery.     Genesis  37. 
How  he  came,  through  his  faithfulness  and  ability,  to  be  appointed 

governor  of  Egypt  by  the  Pharaoh.  38-41. 
His  forgiving  welcome  of  his  famine-stricken  family.     42 :  1-45  :  26. 
The  last  days  of  Jacob  and  of  Joseph  in  Egypt.     45 :  27-50 :  26. 

Thus  the  tribesmen  who  had  lived  a  free  life  for 
generations  in  the  desert  were  settled  on  the  border  of 
Egypt  under  the  control  of  the  sovereign  of  that  great 
empire.  The  immediate  cause  was  a  famine.  The 
author  of  Genesis  sought  to  show  that  it  was  really  a 
step  in  the  fulfilment  of  God's  abiding  purpose  for  the 
world,  none  the  less  important  because  no  one  realized 
its  significance  at  the  time. 

The  keenest  criticism  ever  made  regarding  these 
chapters  was  based  upon  their  excellence.  It  has  been 
declared  that  Joseph  is  too  perfect  a  personality.  His 
portrait  is  indeed  ideal.  Joseph  was  the  true  child  of 
the  godly  Jacob.  But  the  repentant  Judah  is  a  noble 
personahty.  One  of  the  most  moving  passages  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  his  intercession  for  Benjamin  (44 : 


16  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

18-34).     Moreover,  Jacob's  own  portrait  is  completed 
in  his  interview  with  the  Pharaoh  (47:  7-10). 

7.    The  Elements  of  Abiding  Value  in  Genesis. 

One  who  surveys  Genesis  as  a  whole  realizes  the 
unique  and  commanding  value  of  the  book  as  it  stands, 
and  never  fails  to  marvel  over  the  genius  it  exhibits. 
How  fortunate  it  has  been  for  the  religious  world  that 
the  merely  historical  data  of  these  centuries  are  ob- 
scured in  the  portrayal  of  personalities.  No  writer  of 
early  Hebrew  days  could  possibly  have  related  the  cor- 
rect historical  data.  No  one  is  sure  of  them  even 
to-day  after  nearly  a  century  of  research  concerning  the 
early  ages.  Yet  Genesis  is  an  unsurpassable  introduc- 
tion to  the  Biblical  story  of  the  growth  of  the  Hebrew 
people  into  religious  leadership.  The  foundation  it 
lays  is  ethical  and  spiritual.  It  drives  home  the  im- 
pression of  a  world  made  gradually  ready  for  righteous 
living  and  the  equally  gradual  appearance  of  a  people 
who  would  interpret  godliness  to  the  world.  It  makes 
this  impression  through  a  series  of  pictures  flashed  upon 
a  background  which  is  not  clearly  defined.  The  He- 
brews are  yet  in  the  simplest  stage  of  social  and  re- 
ligious organization.  They  have  their  whole  career  yet 
to  be  achieved. 


n 


THE  FORMATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE 
GREAT  LEADER,  MOSES 

Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy 
(About  1200-1150  B.  C.) 

With  the  settlement  of  an  important  section  of  the 
Hebrew  tribes  in  Egypt  a  new  era  began  for  them 
and  for  the  world.  This  was  not  due  to  environment 
merely;  quite  possibly  the  stay  in  Egypt  did  little  for 
the  Hebrews  as  a  group,  since  their  own  habits  and 
preferences  made  for  seclusion.  It  doubtless  had  more 
effect  on  their  natural  leaders.  Moses  may  not  have 
been  the  only  promising  Hebrew  lad  who  was  intro- 
duced to  the  culture  of  the  Egypt  of  that  day.  The 
Hebrews  in  any  case  maintained  their  identity  as  a 
people  and  were  not  merged  into  the  Egyptian  nation. 

I.    The  Chronology. 

To  determine  the  exact  dates  of  their  entrance  into 
Egypt  or  of  their  great  departure  is  impracticable. 
All  early  Biblical  chronology  is  uncertain.  Events, 
however  important,  earlier  than  about  the  ninth  cen- 
tury B.  C.  must  be  dated  provisionally,  with  much 
allowance  for  variation.  They  can  only  be  approxi- 
mated. Many  Biblical  estimates  are  in  round  num- 
bers. No  one  can  be  sure,  for  example,  that  Moses 
lived  exactly  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  (Deuter- 
onomy 34  :  7),  although  he  must  have  become  very  old. 

17 


18  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  Biblical  statements  about  the  sojourn  of  the  He- 
brews in  Egjrpt  point  on  the  one  hand  to  four  cen- 
turies (Genesis  15:13;  Exodus  12:40),  and  on  the 
other  to  four  generations  (Genesis  15 :  15 ;  Exodus 
6:  16-20).  The  shorter  estimate  seems  on  the  whole 
the  more  probable.  Its  terminus  and  hence  the  time 
of  the  active  career  of  Moses  would  be  approximately- 
determined,  if  we  knew  without  question  who  was  the 
Egyptian  sovereign  "who  knew  not  Joseph."  From 
such  hints  as  are  available  he  is  usually  identified  with 
Ramses  II,  the  greatest  sovereign  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty. 

2.    The  Egypt  Which  the  Hebrews  Knew. 

The  Egypt  which  made  the  background  for  the  He- 
brew story  was  the  Egypt  of  the  Empire  which  lasted 
from  about  1580  to  1150  B.  C.  About  this  there  can 
be  little  question.  Its  Pharaohs  were  great  military 
leaders  who  conquered  a  vast  empire  which  extended 
from  the  upper  Euphrates  to  Ethiopia.  The  wealth 
thus  captured  developed  the  splendid  Egypt,  whose 
ruins  even  to-day  are  so  impressive.  Art,  architecture, 
and  literature  flourished  under  the  patronage  of  the 
great  Pharaohs  whose  capital  was  at  Thebes.  Most  of 
the  massive  monumental  remains  now  visible  date  from 
this  remarkable  era. 

In  such  a  rapidly  growing  empire  the  time  was  bound 
to  come  when  the  friendly  conditions  under  which  the 
Hebrews  gained  entrance  into  Egypt  would  be  for- 
gotten or  deliberately  foresworn  and  they  would  be 
forced,  like  other  foreigners,  to  toil  upon  the  imposing 
exhibits  of  royal  ambition  or  enterprise. 

During  several  of  these  same  centuries  a  Hittite  em- 
pire developed  in  Asia  Minor  (about  1450-1200  B.  C), 
which  was  powerful  enough  to  dispute  with  Egypt  the 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  MOSES  19 

suzerainty  of  the  smaller  peoples  of  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine. The  Tel-el  Amarna  correspondence  between  the 
Egyptian  sovereign  and  his  representatives  abroad, 
written  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century 
B.  C,  shows  that  the  Hittites  were  gaining  control  of 
Syria  and  that  the  security  of  Canaan  was  threatened. 
It  was  the  subsequent,  steady  warfare  of  these  two 
great  empires  for  the  control  of  these  rich  territories 
lying  between  their  own  domains  that  destroyed  the 
Amorite-Canaanite  civilizations,  and  substantially 
weakened  their  own  strength,  thus  opening  the  way 
for  the  settlement  of  the  Hebrews  in  Canaan.  Hu- 
manly speaking,  this  would  have  been  impossible  until 
after  the  bitter,  wasting  warfare  between  Ramses  II 
and  his  Hittite  rival,  Khetasar.  The  other  outstand- 
ing sovereignties  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  the 
Kingdom  of  Mitanni  between  the  upper  Euphrates 
and  the  Balikh,  a  small  but  influential  state;  Assyria, 
which  under  Tukulti-Ninib  I  (about  1290-1250  B.  C), 
a  vigorous  warrior,  made  a  brief  but  noteworthy  bid 
for  the  control  of  Western  Asia;  only  to  be  repressed 
by  the  third,  Babylonia,  which  was  still  an  empire  of 
vast  resourcefulness.  These  three,  however,  neutral- 
ized one  another  for  a  long  period.  No  one  outstand- 
ing, aggressive,  imperial  power  appeared  in  Asia  for 
the  next  two  centuries,  a  fact  of  much  significance  for 
budding  Hebrew  nationahsm. 

3.    The  Awakening  of  the  Hebrews  (Exodus  i :  1-22; 
2:23-25). 

The  first  chapter  of  Exodus  is  a  witness  to  certain 
interesting  facts.  First,  the  Hebrews  multiplied  in 
numbers  while  they  were  in  Egypt,  becoming  in  reality 
a  considerable  people.  Again  the  reigning  sovereign 
of  Egypt  reduced  them  to  slavery.     They  were  treated 


20  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

like  captives  of  warfare,  forced  to  undertake  toilsome, 
unrequited,  monumental  tasks.  Thus  the  older  rela- 
tions of  friendship  and  privilege  between  the  Egyptians 
and  the  Hebrews  were  replaced  by  hatred  and  hostilitj^. 
Egypt  thenceforth  became  for  centuries  an  object  of 
abhorrence  or  of  satire  in  the  mind  of  a  Hebrew, 
whether  peasant  or  statesman. 

4.    The  Training  of  Moses  for  His  Life  Work  (Exodus 
2  : 1-4 :  26). 
The  beautiful  story  of  Moses    the   deliverer   inter- 
prets itseK. 

How  the  infant  Moses  was  adopted  by  the  daughter  of  the  Pharaoh. 

Exodus  2 : 1-10. 
How  in  early  manhood  he  championed  his  own  oppressed  people. 

2:ll-15a. 
His  flight  to  Midian  and  life  there  in  freedom  and  quiet.     2 :  15b- 

22. 
His  call  by  Jehovah  to  be  the  deliverer  of  his  people  from  Egyptian 

servitude.     3:1-4: 18. 

Eliminating  the  passages  (3:21-4:9;  4:19-26) 
which  interfere  with  the  direct  progress  of  the  narra- 
tive, the  story  of  the  preparation  of  Moses  for  his  task 
is  impressively  told.  Given  a  wonderful  training  as  a 
recognized  member  of  the  royal  family,  he  yet  ranged 
himself  when  the  crisis  came  with  his  own  kindred,  not 
counting  the  personal  cost.  He  fled  to  the  Midianites, 
a  semi-nomadic  people  near  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea,  whose  traditions  were  not  unlike  those  of  his  fore- 
fathers. There  for  many  years  he  must  have  pondered 
over  the  situation  of  his  people,  laying  the  plans  for 
their  deliverance  which  gave  him  eventually  such  con- 
fident leadership. 

The  story  of  his  call  to  public  service  emphasizes 
three  commanding  reasons  for  his  willingness  to  ven- 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  MOSES  21 

ture  back  to  Egypt  on  behalf  of  his  people.  At  lonely 
Horeb  he  gained  a  new  vision  of  God  as  his  friendly 
Leader,  adequate  in  power,  adopting  the  cause  of  the 
Hebrews,  making  them  His  own  children.  The  new, 
mysterious  name  of  God  (Exodus  3 :  14)  conveyed  the 
idea  of  a  gracious,  active,  friendly  PersonaHty.^  With 
such  a  conception  of  the  Divine  Being  who  was  behind 
him  Moses  could  go  ahead  with  confidence.  Again 
Moses  came  to  feel  that  the  time  had  come  for  the  ful- 
filment of  his  plans.  The  old  sovereign  had  died. 
During  the  dozen  or  more  years  of  weak  government 
that  followed,  a  bold  leader  like  Moses  may  well  have 
found  his  opportunity.  In  the  third  place,  however, 
there  came  to  him  an  overwhelming  sense  of  duty  to 
his  people,  which  overruled  every  sort  of  objection  he 
could  frame.  Evidently  in  the  desert  he  underwent 
one  of  those  great  spiritual  experiences  which  fashion 
the  leaders  of  any  age. 

5.    His  Struggle  with  the  Sovereign  of  Egypt  Over  a 
Recognition  of  Hebrew  Rights  (Exodus  4 :  27- 
II :  10). 
A  certain  confusion  is  given  to  the  mind  of  the  close 
reader  of  these  chapters  by  the  variations  of  expres- 
sion.    These  are  due,  as  in  Genesis,  to  the  fact  that  the 
historical  portions  of  these  chapters  represent  a  com- 
bination of  two  complete,  prophetic  narratives  of  the 
exodus,  with  large  use  of  the  one  generally  regarded 
as  the  earlier  one,  both  supplemented  by  a  third  one 
due  to  the  priestly  narrator.     Each  reported  in  its  own 
fashion  the  plagues  by  which  the  Egyptians  became 
convinced  that  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  was  acting 
powerfully  in  their  behalf.     They  agreed  upon  many, 

1  The  divine  name,  usually  pronounced  in  three  syllables,  Jehovah,  should  probably 
be  rendered  in  two,  Yahweh.  Since  Jehovah  is  the  more  familiar  form,  it  is  retained 
in  this  volume. 


22  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

especially  the  culminating  ones.  All  testified  to  the 
call  and  commission  of  Moses,  to  the  new  conception 
of  God  which  he  proclaimed,  to  a  series  of  calamities 
in  Egypt  which  all  attributed  to  the  power  and  pur- 
pose of  Jehovah,  and  to  the  sudden  departure  of  the 
Hebrews  at  the  end  of  the  struggle.  Thus  to  all  the 
essential  facts  these  earlier  narratives  give  a  triple  tes- 
timony out  of  national  tradition. 

How  Aaron  was  associated  with  Moses  in  the  task  of  deliverance. 

Exodus  4 :  27-31. 
Their  first  approach  to  the  Pharaoh  with  a  request  for  religious 

privilege.     5 : 1-3. 
The  resultant  pitiless  oppression  of  the  Hebrews.     5  :  4-6  :  1. 
[The  parallel  account  of  data  already  stated  6 :  2-7 :  7.] 
The  series  of  plagues  by  which  the  Egyptians  were  made  willing  to 

let  the  Hebrews  go.     7 :  8-10  :  20  passim. 
The  repeated  and  increasingly  comprehensive  demands  for  the 

right  to  sacrifice  as  a  people.     7 :  16;  8 : 1,  8,  20,  25-28;  9  :  1,  13; 

10:3,  7-11,  24-26. 
The  plagues  which  broke  the  Pharaoh's  spirit.     10 :  21-29 ;  1 1 :  4-8 ; 

12 :  29-33. 

The  story  of  the  struggle  between  the  Hebrew  lead- 
ers and  the  powerful  Pharaoh  and  his  lords  tended 
naturally  in  Hebrew  remembrance  to  become  a  narra- 
tive of  marvels.  The  exact  historical  facts  can  never 
be  known,  but  they  must  have  been  substantially  as 
the  Bible  represents.  How  else  could  one  man,  how- 
ever remarkable,  wrest  a  whole  people  from  the  grip 
of  a  power  notoriously  callous  to  all  interests  other  than 
its  own!  A  stupendous  historical  miracle  was  cer- 
tainly achieved.  On  the  other  hand,  the  stirring  record 
rightly  points  out  the  Divine  share  in  this  achievement. 
It  was  God,  not  Moses,  who  really  won  the  victory. 
In  gratitude  for  His  work  of  deliverance  the  Hebrews 
soon  after  declared  themselves  Jehovah's  people. 

The  story  of  these  days  also  indicates  an  extremely 
skilful  approach  to  the  Pharaoh  by  Moses.     His  orig- 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  MOSES  23 

inal  demand  was  for  permission  to  lead  the  Hebrews 
a  three  days'  journey  into  the  desert  in  order  that  they 
might  properly  recognize  their  God.  It  was  an  en- 
tirely appropriate  request  on  behaK  of  a  pastoral 
people  to  whom  Egyptian  soil  was  a  foreign  domain. 
It  did  not  involve  a  renunciation  of  allegiance,  but  did 
involve  a  recognition  of  Hebrew  tribal  identity  and  of 
Hebrew  rights  as  a  people.  The  plea  was  rejected 
with  scorn,  because  the  Hebrews  had  come  to  be  looked 
upon  as  slaves,  entitled  to  no  consideration.  Moses 
continued  to  insist  that  they  should  be  allowed  to  act 
as  a  people  (8  :  25-27;  10  :  8-11,  24-26)  and  after  their 
accustomed  fashion.  Such  a  plea  was  perfectly  reason- 
able, and  would  have  impressed  the  reasonably  minded 
among  the  Egyptians. 

6.  The  Departure  of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt 
(Exodus  12  : 1-15  :  21). 
The  current  of  the  historical  narrative  in  Exodus  is 
broken  somewhat  by  the  inclusion  of  legislation  relat- 
ing to  the  passover  celebration  and  to  the  redemption 
of  the  first-born  (12  : 1-28;  12 :  40-13  :  16),  introduced 
by  the  compiler  to  indicate  the  origin  and  details  of 
two  of  the  fundamental  customs  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  institution  of  the  Passover  as  a  distinctively  Hebrew  feast. 
Exodus  12 : 1-16,  21-28,  45-49.     [12 :  17-20.] 

The  final  demonstration  of  Jehovah's  power  and  the  hmried  yield- 
ing of  the  Pharaoh  and  his  people.  12 :  20-S»,  [40-42;  12 :  50- 
IS :  10]. 

The  law  of  the  redemption  of  the  first-born.     13 :  11-16. 

The  departure  for  the  desert.     13 :  17-22. 

Pharaoh's  renewed  attempt  to  enforce  his  will.     14 :  1-9. 

The  wonderful  deliverance  of  the  Hebrews.     14 :  10-31. 

Miriam's  song  of  thanksgiving.     15 :  20,  21,  1-1  lb. 

Forever  related  in  Hebrew  consciousness  with  the 
deliverance  of  their  fathers  from  Egyptian  bondage 


24  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

were  the  two  national  observances  of  the  Passover 
and  of  the  ransoming  of  the  first-born.  Each  grew 
out  of  earUer  rehgious  customs.  Moses'  demand  upon 
Pharaoh  impHed  an  ancient  rehgious  festival  which  the 
Passover  displaced.  The  recognition  of  God*s  right 
to  the  first-fruits  of  nature  or  of  the  family  was  no  new 
idea.  Yet  these  hallowed  customs  gained  an  added 
sanction  through  the  gracious  and  mighty  providences 
of  God  at  the  time  of  the  deliverance. 

The  estimate  of  the  number  of  the  people  who  es- 
caped from  Egypt,  given  in  Exodus  12 :  37  (reiterated 
in  Numbers  1 :  46;  26 :  51),  implies  about  two  milhons 
in  all.  This  number  seems  much  too  large  in  view  of 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  desert,  and  because  of 
casual  hints  in  the  later  Biblical  narrative  (Exodus 
23  :  30;  Numbers  13  :  31 ;  Judges  5:8).  The  large  esti- 
mates came  from  the  priestly  writer,  whose  sense  of 
God's  power  was  so  profound  that  difficulties  were 
ignored. 

The  wonder  of  the  deliverance  was  ever  foremost  in 
the  Hebrew  mind.  It  was  Jehovah's  thoughtful  care, 
they  realized,  that  made  it  possible.  The  probabilities 
were  all  against  success.  The  Hebrews  might  have 
taken  the  direct  "way  of  the  land  of  the  Phihstines," 
the  ancient  route  to  Canaan,  but  fortunately  they  did 
not  try  this  route.  It  would  have  invited  fresh  perils. 
The  "way  of  the  wilderness"  ran  directly  eastward  to 
the  desert  which  they  desired  to  reach.  This  edge  of 
Egypt  was  protected  by  a  line  of  garrisoned  fortresses 
from  Lake  Timsah  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  narra- 
tive seems  to  imply  that  the  Hebrews  were  obliged  to 
try  to  skirt  this  barrier,  and  were  caught  between  the 
pursuing  Egyptian  army  and  the  shallow  arm  of  the 
Red  Sea.  Here  the  way  across  was  suddenly  made 
possible,   whereas   the   pursuing   chariots   were   over- 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  MOSES  25 

whelmed.  The  uprising  of  the  walls  of  water  on  either 
side,  making  a  lane  of  dry  land  through  a  sea  of  some 
depth  (14  :  29)  is  a  poetical  conception,  not  in  accord 
with  the  more  prosaic  but  no  less  providential  blowing 
back  of  the  shallow  waters  of  the  arm  of  the  sea  by  a 
heavy  wind  from  the  east  (14  :  21). 

However  the  Hebrews  got  across  the  bar  between 
Egypt  and  the  free  desert,  that  achievement  was  the 
birthday  of  the  Hebrew  people.  All  sense  of  obliga- 
tion to  Egypt  had  been  cancelled.  The  influence  and 
authority  of  Moses  had  been  established.  Above  all, 
the  people  had  gained  an  unfading  conviction  that 
Jehovah  had  delivered  them,  and  that  they  ought  to 
accept  His  leadership  and  protection  and  become  His 
people. 

7.  The  Leadership  of  Moses  at  Sinai  (Exodus 
15  :  22-24:  18;  32-35,  passim). 
The  story  of  the  period  which  intervenes  between 
the  departure  from  Egypt  and  the  arrival  in  Canaan 
is  hard  to  unravel  from  the  perplexingly  varied  con- 
tents of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuter- 
onomy. The  order  in  which  things  happened  is  often 
far  from  clear.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  outstand- 
ing facts  are  unquestionable.  The  stay  at  Sinai  was 
the  time  when  the  Hebrew  people  became  inspirited 
by  Moses  for  their  national  task.  What  he  accom- 
plished is  often  overestimated  in  its  details,  but  never 
in  its  significance.  The  Hebrew  people  emerged  at 
this  time  from  the  near-heathenism  into  which  they 
had  lapsed  and  learned  to  worship  one  good,  gracious, 
holy  God. 

The  march  to  Sinai.     Exodus  15  :  22-16  : 1 ;  17 : 1 ;  19 : 1-2. 

The  school  of  thankful  obedience.     16  :  2-17  :  7. 

The  solemn  blood  compact  with  Jehovah  at  Sinai.     19  :  3-25. 


26  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  giving  of  the  sacred  ceremonial  code,  the  "Ten  Words." 
54:10-28. 

The  great  ethical  code.     20  :  1-17  (Deuteronomy  5  :  &-21). 

The  joyful  construction  of  the  sacred  Tent  of  Meeting  as  a  dwelling- 
place  for  Jehovah,  and  its  usefulness.  25  :  1,  8;  35  :  21;  56 :  2, 
3a,  8a;  33:7-11. 

Jehovah's  gracious  and  wonderful  manifestation  of  His  Presence  to 
Moses.     33 :  17,  12-16,  19,  18,  20-25;  34  :  5-9. 

At  Sinai  Moses  was  faced  by  a  stupendous  task. 
He  had  to  fuse  into  a  working  unity  a  group  of  clans 
and  families  unaccustomed  to  cooperation.  He  ac- 
complished this  by  subjecting  them  to  a  powerful  re- 
ligious impulse,  loyalty  to  Jehovah  their  Deliverer, 
henceforth  to  be  their  Leader.  The  basis  of  the  cov- 
enant was  simple  enough,  yet  it  was  ethical.  He  would 
guide  and  protect  them;  they  would  worship  Him. 
The  whole  value  of  it,  religiously  speaking,  lay  in  the 
character  of  Jehovah.  At  Sinai  few  besides  Moses 
were  able  to  appreciate  His  true  nature;  the  people  had 
to  realize  it  gradually,  even  through  centuries. 

Moses  drove  home  at  Sinai  a  few  fundamental  facts 
about  Jehovah.  He  was  powerful,  gracious,  able  to 
care  for  them,  but  moral  in  His  demands.  Injustice 
and  wrongdoing  He  would  punish;  integrity,  truthful- 
ness, and  purity  he  expected  in  His  followers.  He  and 
they  were  to  stand  together  exclusively.  All  this  was 
ethical  more  than  spiritual;  it  was  not  yet  the  enlight- 
ened monotheism  of  centuries  later,  but  it  made  a 
strong  start  toward  it. 

The  remainder  of  Exodus  is  given  to  details  of  legis- 
lation into  which  we  need  not  enter.  It  is  generally 
agreed  to-day  that  the  legislation  found  in  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy  is  a  complex 
of  many  legislative  codes  of  different  ages,  represent- 
ing the  gradual  development  of  Mosaic  institutions 
during  a  period  of  over  seven  hundred  years.     The  earli- 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  MOSES  27 

est  and  simplest  may  be  Exodus  34 :  14-26,  which  is  a 
primitive  but  distinctly  religious  code.  Whether  the 
code  of  20 :  2-17  is  equally  early  is  one  of  the  hotly 
argued  questions  of  Biblical  scholarship.  As  now 
placed  in  the  record  this  little  code  seems  to  have  been 
an  insertion,  since  20  :  1  contradicts  20  :  19,  and  breaks 
the  connection  between  19  :  17  and  20 :  18.  Yet  by 
its  definitely  ethical  character  it  supplements  the  other 
short  code.  Its  lofty  standards  cause  some  students  to 
date  it  later  than  David,  but  this  reason  does  not  seem 
conclusive.  That  the  fundamental  principles  on  which 
Moses  desired  their  life  as  a  people  to  be  based  should 
be  expressed  in  short,  simple  codes  like  these  is  wholly 
in  accordance  with  probabilities.  The  longer  code  of 
Exodus  20  :  23-23  :  19  is  so  clearly  a  code  for  community 
life  that  it  seems  to  represent  the  life  in  Canaan. 

At  Sinai  Moses  gained  the  acceptance  of  the  covenant 
with  Jehovah  by  the  people,  made  provision  for  His 
regular  worship  at  a  simple  sanctuary,  and  established 
regulations  which  insured  sanitation,  pubhc  order, 
health,  and  cooperative  action.  His  people  were  still 
mainly  slaves  in  spirit.  They  needed  simple  institu- 
tions which  they  could  understandingly  obey.  He  was 
fortunate  in  his  lieutenants.  There  must  have  been, 
besides  Joshua,  a  good  many  dependable  ones  (24  :  14), 
whose  names  are  unknown,  through  whom  Moses  was 
able  to  begin  the  task  of  training  his  people  into  a  God- 
fearing race  in  whose  minds  religion  of  a  high  and  noble 
sort  should  become  established. 

8.    The  Wilderness  Years    (Exodus,  Numbers,   and 

Deuteronomy,  passim). 

To  trace  the  history  of  these  years  with  accuracy  is 

quite  out  of  the  question.     The  Hebrews  made  Kadesh 

their  headquarters,  but  must  have  roamed  much  of  the 


28  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

time  about  the  southern  desert  in  their  old  fashion. 
Yet  the  great  blessing  they  craved  was  a  homeland, 
where  they  could  live  in  peace.  Toward  Canaan  they 
were  moving  in  heart  and  in  fact.  Only  the  out- 
standing events  need  be  traced  below. 

The  journey  to  Kadesh.     Deuteronomy  1 :  6-19. 

The  abortive  attempt  to  invade  Canaan  from  the  south.  Numbers 
13,  14;  Deuteronomy  1 :  20-46. 

The  judicial  organization  of  the  people.  Deuteronomy  1 :  9-17; 
Exodus  18. 

The  refusal  of  Edom  to  give  a  right  of  way.     Numbers  20 :  14-21. 

The  conquest  of  the  Amorites  and  discomfiture  of  Amalek. 
Exodus  17:8-15;  Numbers  21:21-32;  Deuteronomy  2:24-36. 

How  Balaam,  the  seer,  hired  by  Moab  to  put  a  curse  upon  the  He- 
brews, was  forced  to  follow  God's  will.     Numbers  22 :  2-35. 

His  predictions  of  Israel's  greatness.     Numbers  22 :  36-24  :  25. 

The  East-Jordan  tribes  settled  yet  loyal.     Numbers  32. 

The  last  days  of  Moses.  Numbers  27: 12-23;  Deuteronomy  31, 
32,  34. 

During  the  long  delay  while  Kadesh  was  their  head- 
quarters, a  process  of  organization  was  going  on,  re- 
ported in  Exodus  18  as  taking  place  even  before  the 
events  at  Sinai,  but  by  Deuteronomy  1  as  occurring 
later.  The  exact  date  is  less  important  than  the  fact, 
which  illustrated  the  boundless  energy  and  capacity 
of  Moses.  He  may  have  been  fortunate  in  his  advisers, 
but  he  was,  after  all,  responsible  for  a  scheme  of  gov- 
ernment w^hich  substituted  orderliness  for  confusion,  de- 
centralized the  administration  of  common  justice,  and 
gave  a  substantial,  civil  unity  to  a  rather  clannish  people. 

Out  of  the  perplexing  and  often  conflicting  histori- 
cal details  embodied  in  these  records,  which  are  pri- 
marily legal,  emerge  several  indisputable  data,  such  as 
the  removal  to  Kadesh,  the  premature  and  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  penetrate  Canaan  from  the  south,  the 
refusal  of  Edom  to  give  a  right  of  way  to  the  East- 
Jordan  country,  the  circuit  around  Edom,  various  sue- 


THE  LEADERSHIP  OF  MOSES  29 

cessful  encounters  with  determined  foes,  the  anxiety 
of  Moab  over  the  appearance  of  the  mihtant  new- 
comers, and  the  ultimate  arrival  at  a  point  whence  the 
entrance  into  Canaan  was  feasible.  It  is  the  danger 
of  the  Bibhcal  reader  that  he  overestimates  the  unity 
of  the  Hebrew  tribes  in  these  transactions.  To  what 
extent  these  achievements  were  accomplished  by  the 
group  of  tribes  working  together  or  by  separate  groups 
acting  on  their  own  initiative  is  quite  uncertain.  The 
Hebrew  writers  were  themselves  viewing  these  years 
through  a  veil  of  dim  tradition.  The  one  supremely 
important  fact  is  that  during  the  long  sojourn  at 
Kadesh  these  tribesmen  with  separate  family  affiha- 
tions  and  peculiar  customs  gained  a  sense  of  religious 
unity  and  a  definite  though  simple  religious  stamp 
which  was  able  to  survive  the  tremendous  testing  of 
the  fierce  struggles  of  the  next  one  hundred  years. 


9.  The  Significant  Place  of  Moses  in  Hebrew  His- 
tory. 
,.  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  concludes  the  record  of 
the  life  of  Moses  with  the  judgment  that  he  was  unique 
among  men  of  prophetic  power  (Deuteronomy  34  :  10), 
a  well-deserved  tribute  to  the  essential  element  in  his 
greatness  in  history.  He  had  a  real  vision  of  God  and 
passed  along  a  genuine  message  from  Him  to  those  of 
his  generation.  But  Moses  was  more  than  an  inter- 
preter. He  had  the  especial  and  rare  genius  of  a 
founder.  He  initiated  the  greatest  course  of  religious 
growth  the  world  has  ever  known.  This  was  due  to 
his  prophetic  qualities.  What  he  put  into  motion  was 
simple  enough.  It  had  to  be  so  in  order  to  fit  the  vital 
needs  of  the  simple-minded  people  he  led.  But  he 
looked  ahead,  not  only  organizing  soundly,  but  estab- 
lishing ideals  that  persisted  and  blossomed  vigorously. 


30  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

His  greatest  fitness  for  his  task  was  not  his  command- 
ing personaUty  or  his  patient  devotedness  to  a  trying, 
impulsive,  intractable  people.  It  did  not  grow  out  of 
his  superior  cultural  advantage  or  through  his  unusual 
experience.  It  rested  clearly  on  the  illuminating  vi- 
sions of  God  (Exodus  3,  33,  34)  which  gave  him  such 
power  of  religious  leadership  that  the  people  could  only 
hold  that  Moses  was  privileged  to  see  Him  "face  to 
face."  He  was  able  to  kindle  a  faith  in  this  righteous 
and  good,  yet  powerful  Jehovah  and  a  wiUingness  to 
enlist  under  Him  which  were  both  vital  and  persistent. 

The  real  history  of  the  Hebrew  people  begins  with 
Moses,  their  accepted  leader,  the  wise  organizer  of  their 
institutional  life,  the  watchful  guardian  of  their  inter- 
ests, and  the  interpreter  of  their  future.  On  the  basis 
which  he  laid  was  reared  the  essential  structure  of  their 
whole  national  life.  Later  generations  made  no  real 
mistake  in  attributing  to  him  the  whole  body  of  results 
developed  during  the  next  seven  centuries. 


Ill 

THE  GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  OF 
THE  HEBREW  PEOPLE 

Joshua  to  I  Kings  11    (About  1150-937  B.  C.) 

The  crossing  of  the  Jordan,  whether  accomplished 
in  a  day  or  during  a  generation,  marked  a  decisive 
turning  point  in  the  life  of  the  Hebrews  as  a  people. 
In  place  of  being  semi-nomadic  they  mainly  settled 
down  to  village  life;  they  exchanged  the  keeping  of 
flocks  for  agricultural  pursuits;  their  social  and  re- 
ligious habits  were  altered  in  many  important  respects; 
eventually  they  achieved  true  nationality.  That  these 
changes  were,  on  the  whole,  for  the  better  can  hardly 
be  questioned.  The  Hebrews  took  a  step  upward  in 
civilization.  It  was  also  a  step  ahead  in  religion.  The 
Canaanites  were  a  more  highly  organized  people.  The 
adoption  of  their  customs  introduced  some  very  serious 
evils  into  Hebrew  life;  yet  on  the  whole  the  new  view- 
points were  such  as  to  give  the  Hebrews  a  better  chance 
to  develop  a  wisely  organized  life.  These  two  cen- 
turies were  clearly  the  age  of  establishment  in  a  suit- 
able home  and  of  organization  for  future  nationality. 
At  their  close  the  Hebrew  people  were  just  beginning 
their  real  national  life. 

I.    The  Canaan  of  the  Twelfth  Century  B.  C. 

The  records  of  Egypt  and  Babylonia  attest  the  exist- 
ence of  a  relatively  high  civilization  in  Canaan  during 
several  centuries  just  preceding  the  Hebrew  invasion. 

31 


32  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

This  was  the  fruitage  of  more  than  a  thousand  years 
of  settled  occupancy  of  Canaan,  always  sensitive  to  the 
cultural  influences  of  western  Asia.  The  Canaanites 
dwelt  in  houses  in  walled  "cities."  In  government, 
manner  of  life,  commerce,  and  religion  they  were  in 
their  own  way  proficient.  But  the  recurrence  of  devas- 
tating warfare  between  Egypt  and  the  Hittites  up  and 
down  their  entire  country  gradually  weakened  them  so 
greatly  that  the  aggressive  Hebrews  became  formidable 
opponents,  able  to  meet  the  better  organized  inhabi- 
tants of  Canaan  on  terms  which  w^ere  fairly  even. 

Canaan  w^as  the  early  name  of  the  land  which  we 
call  Palestine.  It  was  approximately  the  size  of  Ver- 
mont. Much  of  this  limited  area  was  unproductive  or 
barren.  It  had  a  central  mountainous  backbone  paral- 
leling the  sea,  sloping  off  gradually  into  the  southern 
desert  and  putting  forth  many  little  ridges  which  dis- 
appeared into  the  coastal  plain.  The  mountain  range 
opened  south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  make  a  clear  pas- 
sageway from  the  Syrian  plains  to  the  coast.  From 
the  "hill  country"  the  Hebrews  could  observe  the  traffic 
and  hear  the  news  of  the  world  of  their  day.  At  the 
same  time  the  varied  configuration  of  the  land  afforded 
both  a  wide  variety  of  climate  and  condition  and  pro- 
vided many  secluded  spots  where  a  group  of  people 
could  live  unmolested  by  ordinary  wayfarers.  Such  a 
situation  explains  the  presence  of  fragments  of  different 
peoples  in  Canaan  at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  invasion. 
(Exodus  23 :  23.) 

Fortunately  for  the  Hebrews,  Canaan  was  free  from 
overwhelming  attack  for  nearly  two  centuries  after 
they  occupied  it.  About  1120  B.  C.  a  great  Assyrian 
sovereign,  Tiglath-pileser  I,  made  the  name  of  Assyria 
widely  feared  by  reason  of  his  aggressive  prowess. 
He  pushed  his  victories  westward  to  the  Mediterranean 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  33 

near  Aleppo,  but  did  not  continue  southward  toward 
Egypt.  His  reign,  however,  was  luckily  followed  by 
those  of  far  weaker  sovereigns  until  the  ninth  century. 
During  this  long  interval  the  other  great  Asiatic  powers 
were  either,  like  the  Arameans,  finding  themselves,  or, 
like  Egypt,  unaggressive. 

2.  The  Hebrew  Conquest  of  Canaan  (Joshua,  Judges). 
The  story  of  the  gradual  settlement  of  Canaan  by 
the  Hebrews  is  reflected  rather  than  related  by  the 
records  found  in  the  Books  of  Joshua  and  Judges. 
The  exact  details  are  far  from  clear.  Historians  of 
later  days  foreshortened  the  sequence  of  events  and 
often  idealized  them.  It  is  fairly  certain  that  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  was  neither  so  speedy  an  event,  nor 
so  unified  or  complete  as  the  reader  of  Joshua  1-12 
would  infer.  The  process  was  rather,  as  Exodus 
23:30  and  Deuteronomy  7:22  put  it,  "by  little  and 
little.'*  The  entrance  may  have  been  by  infiltration 
as  well  as  by  conquest,  from  more  points  of  approach 
than  Jericho,  and  during  some  portion  of  a  half  cen- 
tury. Eventually,  however,  the  Hebrews  were  settled 
on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan  and  had  as  serious  oppo- 
nents only  small  groups  of  Canaanites  and  the  Philis- 
tines. 

The  preparations  of  Joshua,  the  new  Hebrew  leader,  for  the  capture 
of  Jericho.     Joshua  1,  2. 

The  crossing  of  the  Jordan  by  his  forces.     3 : 1-5  : 1. 

Their  capture  of  Jericho.     5  :  13-6  :  27. 

The  sweeping  punishment  of  Achan  and  his  family  for  his  theft.     7. 

The  capture  of  Ai  by  Joshua.     8. 

How  the  Gibeonites  saved  themselves  by  a  stratagem.     9. 

The  defeat  of  the  five  allied  kings  at  Bethhoron.     10 : 1-27. 

The  defeat  of  Jabin  and  his  coalition.     11 : 1-15. 

Traditions  which  may  reflect  early  incursions  into  Canaan.  Gen- 
esis 34,  38. 

Another  story  of  the  advance  of  Judah  and  Simeon.  Judges 
1 : 1-21. 


34  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  capture  of  Bethel  by  the  Joseph  tribes.     1 :  22-26. 

The  many  reverses  and  partial  failures  of  the  Hebrew  aggressors. 

1 :  27-36. 
The  (Deuteronomic  editor's)  summary  of  the  conquest.     Joshua 

10  :  28-43;  11 :  10-23. 
The    (Deuteronomic    editor's)    interpretation    of    the    conquest. 

Judges  2:6-3:6. 
The  (very  late)  account  of  the  division  and  organization  of  the 

land  and  of  Joshua's  farewell.     Joshua  13-24. 

The  plain  language  of  Judges  1 :  19,  21,  27-36  is 
enough  to  show  that  the  summary  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic compiler  in  Joshua  11 :  10-23  was  idealized.  The 
actual  conquest  was  not  as  complete  as  therein  indi- 
cated. Joshua  and  others  broke  down  opposition  and 
gained  a  secure  foothold,  but  were  far  from  becoming 
at  once  the  masters  of  Canaan.  Their  keen  desire  for 
settled  homes  and  the  unity  of  attack  developed  under 
good  leadership  and  a  belief  in  Jehovah's  protection 
gave  them  a  real  advantage.  Yet  the  Canaanites  held 
onto  a  number  of  strategic  centres  and  much  of  the 
fertile  territory  for  a  long  time.  The  Hebrews  ulti- 
mately formed  four  rather  distinct  groups,  that  on  the 
east  of  the  Jordan,  that  in  the  extreme  south,  the  cen- 
tral tribes,  and  the  northern  tribes.  These  divisions 
may  have  come  about  through  independent  advances 
into  Canaan  from  different  directions  or  through  the 
curious  fact  that  in  Joshua's  day  and  later  a  line  of 
Canaanitish  fortified  towns  separated  Judah  from  the 
central  hill  country,  and  another  line  cut  off  the  cen- 
tral region  of  western  Canaan  from  that  of  the  north, 
w^hile  of  course  the  Jordan  River  served  as  a  natural 
line  of  demarcation. 

Gradually,  almost  imperceptibly,  by  peaceful  infil- 
tration and  through  intermarriage  and  incorporation, 
the  Hebrews  absorbed  the  Canaanites  completely,  as- 
suming their  ways  of  living,  adopting  much  of  their 
civilization  and  accepting  many  of  their  religious  habits 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  35 

and  shrines.  The  later  Deuteronomic  editors  of  the 
book  of  Judges  (Judges  2 :  6-3  :  6)  regarded  this  whole- 
sale incorporation  of  the  Canaanites  and  adoption  of 
their  ways  as  indicating  a  rehgious  collapse.  The  ver- 
dict of  Biblical  history  as  a  whole  is  otherwise.  For  a 
people  groping  its  way  out  of  social  clannishness  and 
the  simple  though  often  austere  religious  ideas  which 
it  encourages,  the  new  life  of  Canaan  marked  a  real 
advance,  not  alone  socially  and  culturally,  but  also  re- 
ligiously. Community  and  household  religion  rep- 
resent a  more  wholesome  type  than  rehgion  on  the 
march.  The  real  danger  to  the  Hebrews  lay  in  their 
possible  failure  to  interpret  and  direct  the  new,  broad- 
ened life  by  Mosaic  principles. 

In  this  process  they  had  the  invaluable  aid  of  good 
leaders.  Joshua  in  Hebrew  tradition  was  a  soldier 
with  a  soldier's  good  and  bad  traits.  Courage,  prompt- 
ness, earnestness,  simphcity,  and  faith  were  his  natural 
virtues.  He  was  a  faithful  guardian  of  the  interests 
transmitted  to  him  by  Moses  and  a  loyal  supporter 
of  Mosaic  ideals.  He  not  only  won  for  his  people  a 
homeland,  but  also  kept  alive  their  loyalty  to  Jehovah. 


3.    The    Sporadic   Leadership   in   the   Days   of   the 
"  Judges  "  (Judges  3  :  7-12  :  15;  Ruth). 

During  the  century  or  more  of  the  gradual  transfer 
of  Canaan  to  Hebrew  possession,  the  loosely  united 
confederacy,  while  fortunately  safe  from  the  attacks 
of  powerful  empires,  was  still  in  constant  danger. 
Groups  of  tribes  were  frequently  obliged  to  meet 
enemies  of  their  own  strength.  The  Hebrews  became 
hardy,  seasoned  fighters  (Judges  3  : 1-4)  who  set  a  high 
value  on  physical  prowess.  They  ascribed  their  good 
fortune  to  the  protection  of  Jehovah,  and  grew  in  con- 


36  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

fidence  and  loyalty.     Yv^hen  a  crisis  came,  a  leader 
sprang  up  to  meet  it. 

Othniel  the  Kenizzite  deliverer.     Judges  3:  7-11. 

The  victory  of  Ehud,  the  left-handed  Benjamite,  over  the  Moab- 

ites.     3 :  12-30;  and  the  exploit  of  Shamgar.     3 :  31. 
The  migration  of  the  Danites  and  founding  of  the  famous  shrine 

at  Dan.     17,  18. 
The  moral  outrage  at  Gibeah  and  punishment  of  Benjamin  by  the 

tribesmen.     19-21. 
The  victory  of  Deborah  and  Barak  over  the  Canaanites.     4  :  1-22. 
Deborah's  stirring  and  patriotic  battle  ode.     5. 
Gideon's  great  victory  over  the  Midianitish  marauders.     6-8. 
The  abortive  reign  of  Abimelech  in  Shechem.     9. 
Jepthah's  campaign  against  the  Ammonites :  his  fatal  vow  and  its 

tragic  outcome.     10  :  6-12 :  7. 
Minor  deliverers.     10 : 1-5;  12 :  8-15. 
The  idyllic  story  of  the  adoption  of  Ruth,  the  Moabitess,  into  the 

tribe  of  Judah.     Ruth  1-4. 

This  was  a  stirring  century.  The  Hebrew  clansmen 
were  crude,  rough,  ambitious,  often  unscrupulous. 
They  seemed  in  truth  to  be  doing,  each  one,  what  was 
"right  in  his  own  eyes."  Three  advantages  kept  them 
growing  in  the  upward  direction.  First  were  their 
leaders.  Over  against  a  Shamgar  or  an  Ehud  we  may 
place  a  heroic,  large-minded,  great-hearted  Deborah 
or  a  persistently  faithful  Naomi,  a  respected  and  influ- 
ential Boaz,  or  a  bold,  ingenious,  intrepid  Gideon, 
modest  in  victory,  loyal  to  Jehovah,  representing  the 
Hebrew  at  his  best.  Again  their  Mosaic  traditions 
were  kept  alive  by  the  presence  of  the  ark  with  its 
symbols  of  worship  and  by  the  codes  of  accepted  law 
which  carried  divine  sanction.  In  the  third  place,  their 
underlying  loyalty  to  Jehovah  as  their  accepted  God 
persisted.  This  loyalty  was  often  nominal,  yet  an  ap- 
peal to  it  produced  results.  A  really  astonishing  series 
of  violations  of  the  moral  law  is  related  in  connection 
with  the  seizure  by  the  Danites  of  Micah's  prized  sanc- 
tuary  (Judges  17,   18),  yet  unquestionably  the  tribe 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  37 

keenly  desired  a  regular  means  of  giving  Jehovah  his 
proper  worship.  Even  so  high-handed  a  procedure 
indicates  that  they  valued  Jehovah's  favor.  Their 
ideas  of  Him  were  still  very  crude.  Jepthah  (Judges 
11 :  23,  24)  ranked  Chemosh  with  Jehovah.  The  great 
prophetic  idealism  was  still  centuries  in  the  future. 

4.  The  Philistine  Menace  and  Its  Awakening  Influ- 
ence on  the  Hebrews  (Judges  13-16;  I  Samuel 
1:1-7:17). 
What  forced  the  Hebrew  tribes  to  exchange  their 
valued  independence  for  a  closer  organization  was  an 
increasingly  powerful  enemy  close  at  hand.  The  Philis- 
tines had  gained  a  foothold  in  the  fertile  coast  plain  at 
about  the  time  when  the  Hebrews  began  to  enter 
Canaan,  or  slightly  before.  They  were  a  sturdy,  ag- 
gressive, well-organized,  federated  group  of  related 
peoples,  farther  advanced  in  culture  than  the  Hebrews, 
and  their  most  dangerous  foe.  Fortunately  they  were 
not  strong  enough  to  take  the  aggressive  until  the  He- 
brews had  largely  assimilated  the  remaining  Canaan- 
ites,  had  developed  some  sense  of  unity  as  a  people, 
were  ready  to  follow  able  leaders,  and  believed  that 
Jehovah  at  Shiloh,  the  sanctuary  where  the  ark  re- 
mained, was  their  protecting  presence.  The  time  came, 
however,  after  about  a  century  of  occupation,  when  the 
Philistines  made  a  successful  offensive. 


The  incidental  warfare  with  the  Philistines  represented  by  the  ex- 
ploits of  Samson.     Judges  13-16. 

The  high  quality  of  the  parentage  and  early  training  of  Samuel. 
I  Samuel  1:1-2:11. 

How  Samuel  in  his  youth  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  man  of  God. 
2:  12-4  :1a. 

The  successful  campaign  of  the  Philistines  against  the  Hebrews  of 
the  central  highlands.     4  :  lb-7  :  3. 

A  late  tradition  that  Samuel  threw  off  this  yoke.     7 :  3-17. 


38  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  dates  to  be  assigned  to  these  events  are  so  un- 
certain that  no  student  can  declare  with  entire  con- 
fidence their  actual  course.  Probably  the  Philistines 
followed  up  their  victory  by  establishing  military  posts 
which  enabled  them  to  control  the  conquered  territory 
and  to  collect  tribute  (I  Samuel  10:5;  13:3,  23; 
14 :  1,  11).  They  also  disarmed  the  Hebrews  (13  :  19- 
22).  When  Saul  was  found  by  Samuel  the  Hebrews 
were  still  groaning  under  the  Philistine  yoke,  and  the 
fortresses  were  still  in  use.  How  to  reconcile  these  facts 
with  the  story  of  Samuel's  victory  (7 : 5-14)  is  not 
clear. 

Over  against  this  story  of  disaster  may  be  placed  its 
moral  value.  Samson  was  no  more  than  a  playful 
giant,  rejoicing  that  his  strength  and  wit  enabled  him 
to  annoy  or  circumvent  these  enemies  of  his  people. 
Eli,  the  aged  priest,  w^eak  of  will  yet  with  clear  pre- 
science of  the  trend  of  events,  regretted  bitterly  the 
wasted  energies  of  his  people.  He  saw  that  they 
needed,  for  their  proper  unification  and  deliverance, 
the  leadership  of  a  personality  like  Samuel,  born  out 
of  the  best  Israelitish  stock,  from  God-fearing  parents. 
Hannah,  Naomi,  and  Ruth  are  among  the  answers  to 
the  charge  of  the  unrelieved  moral  and  spiritual  crude- 
ness  of  the  age.  Samuel  represented  the  highest 
product  of  Hebrew  conditions.  He  embodied  for  his 
countrymen  their  best  and  therefore  won  their  con- 
fidence. Through  him  they  made  a  fresh  and  vigor- 
ous start  toward  real  political  unity.  He  also  must  be 
credited  with  the  organization  of  the  prophets  into  an 
order  which  played  a  noteworthy  part  in  Israel's  future. 
His  rule  was  not  merely  a  political  or  social  progress; 
it  was  a  moral  and  spiritual  step  in  advance.  It  rep- 
resented the  union  of  social,  political,  and  religious 
aims. 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  39 

5.    Saul's  Deliverance  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  Phi- 
listine Yoke  and  His  Early  Reign  (I  Samuel 
8-14). 
Samuel's  greatest  service  to  the  Hebrew  people  was 
not  his  guidance  of  their  affairs  before  Saul's  reign,  but 
his  choice  of  Saul  as  the  first  king,  and  his  insistence 
upon  kingly  standards.     He  is  represented  in  I  Samuel 
8 :  11-18  as  having  his  doubts  about  the  happy  out- 
come of  the  establishment  of  a  kingdom,  but  he  knew, 
as  all  now  thought,  that  it  represented  the  next  step 
to  take.     He  found  with   God's  help  the   one  who 
seemed  to  be  the  right  man.     Saul  finely  justified  that 
judgment  in  his  early  reign. 

The  eagerness  of  the  Hebrews  for  a  king  and  Samuel's  warning. 
I  Samuel  8. 

How  Samuel  found  Saul  and  consecrated  him  to  the  kingly  oflSce. 
9 : 1-10  :  16. 

How  Saul's  fitness  for  the  leadership  of  the  people  became  mani- 
fest, so  that  he  was  crowned  king  at  Gilgal.     10 :  17-11 :  15. 

A  late  interpretation  of  Samuel's  attitude.     12. 

Saul's  successful  campaign  against  the  Philistines.     13 : 1-14 :  46. 

His  aggressive  early  reign.     14 :  47-52. 

Saul  was  outwardly  and  inwardly  an  excellent  choice 
as  the  ruler  of  such  a  people.  He  was  more  like  a 
Scottish  chieftain  in  his  methods  and  ideas  than  a 
reigning  sovereign.  His  palace  was  his  ancestral  home, 
his  hall  of  justice  the  shade  of  an  oak-tree,  his  sceptre 
a  spear,  his  courtiers  his  family  retainers  (I  Samuel 
22:6).  His  summons  to  war  was  by  a  primitive 
method  (11 : 7).  He  ruled  by  right  of  prowess  and 
personality  (9:2).  He  had  dreamed  of  freeing  his 
countrymen  (9:19c).  With  his  splendid  son,  Jona- 
than, he  led  his  subjects  to  victory,  not  merely  clearing 
the  Philistines  from  Hebrew  territory,  but  dealing  de- 
cisively with  other  aggressive  peoples  (14  :  47,  48).     In 


40  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

all  this  he  met  their  expectations  and  drew  out  their 
enthusiasm  and  loyalty.  But  he  was  as  superstitious 
as  Jepthah  (14  :  43,  44),  not  really  fitting  into  the  great 
historic  succession  of  leaders. 

6.  David's  Career  at  Court  and  in  Camp  (I  Samuel 
15-31). 
Saul's  success  turned  his  head.  He  became  so  wil- 
ful and  self-assertive  that  the  old  relations  of  confidence 
and  friendship  between  him  and  Samuel  were  broken. 
Just  when  this  occurred  no  one  can  say.  The  narra- 
tive prefers  to  emphasize  the  next  great  forward  step 
of  nationalization,  the  discovery  of  David,  the  real 
creator  of  Hebrew  statehood,  beside  whom  Saul  was 
an  amateur.  It  also  emphasizes  the  varied  experiences 
through  which  the  attractive,  brave,  and  skilful  youth, 
David,  became  the  resourceful,  broad-minded,  popular, 
statesmanlike  sovereign.  His  fitness  was  not  wholly 
a  matter  of  good  qualities;  it  was  in  considerable  mea- 
sure due  to  seized  opportunity. 

How  Saul  and  Samuel  were  estranged.     I  Samuel  15. 

How  Samuel  was  led  to  consecrate  David  for  national  leadership. 

16:1-13. 
How  David  was  summoned  to  Saul's  court  and  prospered  there. 

16  :  14-18  :  5.    (Earliest  narrative.    16 :  14-23;  17 :  1-11,  32-40, 

42-54.) 
The  gradual  growth  of  a  spirit  of  jealousy  in  Saul's  mind.     18 :  6- 

19 :  24. 
David's  forced  retirement  from  the  court  to  the  wilderness.     20-23. 
His  growing  recognition  by  the  nation  as  a  leader  to  be  trusted. 

24,  25. 
Saul's  relentless  pursuit  of  David,  who  flees  to  Gath  of  Philistia 

but  remains  true  to  Hebrew  interests.     26,  27. 
The  new  Philistine  invasion  and  the  death  of  Saul  on  Mt.  Gilboa. 

28-31. 

The  David  of  these  days  had  far  to  go  as  an  ideal 
leader,   but  was   ripening.     He   believed   in   vigorous 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  41 

methods  and  was  not  overscrupulous  in  the  means  he 
used  (18:27;  21:5;  25:22;  27:11).  He  outwitted 
those  who  matched  themselves  with  him.  The  primi- 
tiveness  of  his  religious  ideas  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
he  seemed  to  believe  that  when  he  was  driven  away 
from  Hebrew  soil  he  had  left  Jehovah  behind  (26 :  19). 
But  he  was  gradually  surrounded  by  a  fine  group  of 
men  (22: 1,  2,  5,  20),  courtiers,  prophets,  and  priests. 
Moreover  he  had  the  priceless  treasure  of  the  unre- 
stricted devotion  of  a  man  like  Jonathan,  whose  noble 
character  quickened  his  own  (20:12-17,  23,  41,  42; 
23 :  16-18).  Best  of  all  he  was  enabled  to  render  such 
services  to  his  countrymen  that  Abigail  could  hail  him 
as  the  sure  successor  of  Saul  (25  :  28-31)  and  a  real 
leader  of  the  people.     His  future  was  sure. 

7.  The  Creative  Nationalizing  Work  of  David  as  King 
of  all  Israel  (II  Samuel  1-24). 
The  death  of  Saul  and  his  sons  gave  David  a  sudden 
prominence.  Saul's  hold  upon  his  subjects,  however, 
was  such  that  Ishbaal,  a  son  of  his,  with  the  help  of  a 
fine  soldier,  Abner,  retained  the  throne  of  Israel  for  some 
years.  David  was  chosen  king  in  Judah,  but  both  he 
and  Ishbaal  were  probably  vassals  of  the  Philistines. 
The  death  of  Ishbaal  opened  the  way  for  David  to  be- 
come king  of  all  Israel.  At  once  he  began  to  show  his 
fitness  to  wield  this  authority.  Having  subdued  the 
Philistines  speedily  and  decisively,  he  captured  the  for- 
tress of  Jebus  and  founded  a  capital,  Jerusalem.  This 
small  city  he  rapidly  made  into  a  real  capital,  the  centre 
of  all  Israelitish  life,  political,  social,  and  religious.  He 
organized  the  people  into  a  nation  with  such  success 
that  the  Hebrews  speedily  dominated  their  small  part  of 
the  world.  He  thus  gave  them  the  real  characteristics 
of  nationalism,  a  sense  of  independence  and  an  outlook. 


42  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

David's  sincere  grief  over  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan.  II 
Samuel  1 : 1-27. 

His  quick  acceptance  as  king  of  Judah.     2 : 1-4. 

The  seven  years'  interval  before  the  death  of  Ishbaal.     2 :  5-4 :  12. 

The  coronation  of  David  as  king  over  all  Israel.     5 :  1-5. 

His  capture  of  Jerusalem  which  was  made  a  true  capital.  5  :  6-16; 
6 : 1-23;  8 :  15-18. 

The  speedy  and  skilful  crushing  of  the  Philistines.  5 :  17-25; 
21 :  15-22;  23 :  9-17. 

His  conquests  of  surrounding  peoples.     8 :  1-14;  10 : 1-19. 

His  kindness  to  the  son  of  Jonathan.  9  : 1-13;  16 :  1-4;  19 :  24-30; 
21 : 7. 

David's  deplorable  sin  and  its  long  train  of  bitter  personal  conse- 
quences.    11-20. 

Incidents  showing  his  primitiveness  of  thinking.     21,  24. 

David's  portrait  in  these  chapters  is  a  many-sided 
one.  He  stands  out  as  a  skilful  leader  in  warfare  and 
a  genius  in  statecraft.  He  set  up  a  real  kingdom  with- 
out delay,  one  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  his  people. 
This  kingdom  he  organized,  simply  but  adequately. 
He  was  generous  to  some  foes,  terrible  to  others.  He 
won  the  loyalty  of  all,  even  of  old  foes  (15  :  19-22). 
The  greater  portion  of  the  matchless  historical  narrative 
which  tells  the  story  of  his  reign  is  given  to  the  account 
of  his  moral  downfall  and  its  many  consequences. 
Despite  his  sincere  repentance,  it  wrecked  his  life. 

What  he  was  religiously  is  more  of  a  question. 
These  narratives,  carefully  read,  do  not  give  him  a 
high  religious  rating.  He  was  thoroughly  loyal  to  Je- 
hovah; he  longed  to  render  Him  some  signal  service, 
such  as  the  erection  of  a  suitable  temple;  but  he  still 
was  swayed  by  superstition  as  primitive  as  that  which 
influenced  Jepthah  (21:1-14).  Although  he  surely 
possessed  the  soul  of  a  poet  (1 :  17-26),  and  while  he 
thought  it  worth  his  while  to  add  a  "chronicler"  to  the 
officials  of  his  court  (8: 16),  yet  there  are  many  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  regarding  his  reign  as  a  brilliant 
literary  era.     It  made  a  strong  start. 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  43 

8.  The  Dangerously  Ambitious  Reign  of  Solomon, 
His  Son  (I  Kings  i-ii). 
David's  reign  was  long  and,  notwithstanding  the  re- 
bellions recorded,  his  grip  upon  the  throne  was  secure. 
He  transferred  the  crown  to  Solomon,  the  son  of  Bath- 
sheba.  His  choice  seemed  a  good  one.  Few  sover- 
eigns showed  greater  promise  than  Solomon.  He  had 
a  real  genius  for  reigning.  His  fame  as  a  sovereign 
rests  chiefly  upon  the  building  of  the  beautiful  temple 
for  the  unseen  Jehovah,  which  immediately  exercised 
a  great  and  growing  influence  on  the  religious  life  of 
the  people.  It  should  rest  also  upon  Solomon's  schemes 
for  promoting  and  protecting  commerce,  upon  his  beau- 
tification  of  the  capital,  upon  his  political  affiliations 
and  his  encouragement  of  culture.  His  weakness  lay 
in  the  inordinate  ambition  which  eventually  possessed 
him.  This  made  him  crave  a  place  in  the  world  like 
that  of  the  great  sovereigns  of  Egypt  and  elsewhere. 
His  inability  to  resist  this  fascinating  passion  caused 
him  to  wreck  the  fortunes  of  his  people.  He  taxed 
them  into  revolt. 

The  sudden  selection  of  Solomon  as  David's  successor  and  his 

coronation.     I  Kings  1 : 1-53. 
Solomon's  evident  fitness  to  rule.     2 : 1-3 :  28. 
The  organization  of  his  kingdom  and  court.     4. 
His  building  of  the  splendid  temple  for  Jehovah.     5-7. 
The  solemn  dedication  of  the  temple  to  the  worship  of  the  Invisible. 

8:1-9:9. 
Solomon's  many  enterprises.     9 :  10-28. 
How  his  whole  world  praised  him  and  contributed  to  his  glory. 

10 : 1-29. 
The  evil  side  of  his  many  alliances.     11 : 1-13. 
His  minor  adversaries.     11 :  14-25. 
How  the  prophet  Ahijah  predicted  a  revolt  under  Jeroboam. 

11 :  26-40. 
The  close  of  Solomon's  long  and  peaceful  reign.     11 :  41-43. 

Solomon,   like  David,  was  idealized  by  posterity. 
In  his  case  also  there  was  much  justification.     Solomon 


44  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

was  a  remarkable  ruler  of  real  genius.  He  should  have 
been  the  sovereign  of  an  empire  with  vast  resources. 
His  ideas  outreached  his  judgment.  They  were  not 
unsound  but  beyond  the  resources  of  his  people.  His 
subjects  became  more  and  more  discontented.  Their 
taxes  and  contributions  seemed  unbearable.  Thus  he 
seemed  to  have  wrecked  by  his  obstinacy  and  selfish 
imperialism  that  national  unity  for  which  his  father, 
David,  had  labored  so  earnestly. 

9.    The  Newly  Created  Hebrew  Nation. 

But  no  one  can  wholly  wreck  progress  once  truly 
made.  The  Hebrews  had  been  drawn  into  a  real  work- 
ing unit  by  David.  They  had  achieved  triumphs  over 
other  peoples  through  that  unity.  They  had  rejoiced 
with  him  over  the  power  of  Jehovah  on  their  behalf. 
They  had  a  visible  centre  of  national  life  at  Jerusalem, 
not  only  a  capital  and  a  court  but  a  reminder  of  their 
religious  loyalty.  They  had  gained  self-confidence  as 
a  people,  and  were  ready  to  develop  in  future  days  a 
real  national  programme.  Except  for  the  popular  dis- 
content over  Solomon's  ambitious  schemes,  the  He- 
brew outlook  was  bright  at  the  close  of  his  reign. 

With  great  probability  the  reigns  of  David  and  Sol- 
omon may  be  regarded  as  the  era  of  the  beginnings  of 
Hebrew  literature.  Before  their  day  there  were  lack- 
ing the  necessary  factors.  But  with  the  growth  of  the 
prophetic  order  and  of  the  priesthood  and  with  the 
development  of  a  national  feeling,  cultural  influences 
were  encouraged.  Hero  stories  which  had  passed 
orally  began  to  find  written  form.  Collections  of  rude 
poems  like  the  "Book  of  the  Words  of  Jehovah"  or 
"Jashar"  were  made.  The  recorder  of  the  events  of 
the  reign  of  each  monarch  became  an  important  com*t 
official. 


GRADUAL  NATIONALIZATION  45 

Socially  this  century  witnessed  a  fine  development. 
The  Hebrews  were  a  free  people,  selecting  their  rulers. 
They  welcomed  a  king  as  a  wise  means  of  self -protec- 
tion, but  were  unwilhng  to  obey  a  despot.  On  the 
whole,  David  embodied  the  nation's  ideal. 

Religiously  it  was  a  century  of  advance.  The  build- 
ing of  the  Temple  gave  a  visible  centre  to  the  worship 
of  the  invisible  Jehovah.  It  helped  to  spiritualize  and 
dignify  the  religious  life  of  every  Hebrew.  Thus  by 
937  B.  C.  the  Hebrew  nation  was  well  on  its  way. 


IV 

THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  TO 
MOSAIC  IDEALS 

I  Kings  12 :  l-II  Kings  10 :  28  (937-840  B.  C.) 

With  the  achievement  of  nationalism  the  real  history 
of  the  Hebrews  as  a  people  began.  The  forces  making 
for  culture  and  progress  had  freer  course.  This  im- 
portant attainment  unexpectedly  became  a  second 
great  turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  people.  A 
large  share  of  Solomon's  subjects  revolted  from  his 
son,  Rehoboam,  and  set  up  an  independent  dynasty  of 
their  o^ti,  which  came  to  be  known  as  the  Northern 
kingdom,  or,  to  adopt  their  own  rather  presuming  title, 
as  Israel.  Only  Judah,  the  Southern  kingdom,  re- 
mained loyal  to  the  Davidic  dynasty. 

The  story  of  the  next  three  and  a  half  centuries  is 
told  in  Kings,  an  editorial  survey  of  the  whole  period, 
based  on  annalistic  notes  about  the  kings  and  their 
reigns,  enlivened  by  vivid  stories  like  those  about 
Elijah  and  Ehsha  and  other  prophets.  Some  other 
data  are  contributed  from  Chronicles,  which  are  an 
elaboration  and  reinterpretation  from  an  ideal  religious 
view-point  of  the  material  in  Kings.  The  modern  his- 
torian is  able  to  check  these  histories  by  the  appropriate 
prophetic  books,  and  by  the  statements  of  the  Assyro- 
Baby Ionian  records. 

The  first  of  these  centuries  included  the  inevitable 
46 


THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  47 

half  century  of  adjustment — a  period  of  warfare,  as- 
sertiveness,  experiment.  The  two  kingdoms  then  got 
together  reasonably  well,  and  each  met  the  great  re- 
ligious crisis  imposed  by  the  ambitious  Phoenician 
queen  and  her  daughter.  The  reaction  of  each  Hebrew 
people  to  this  crisis  was  the  outstanding  fact  of  the 
century. 

I.  The  Disruption  of  the  Kingdom  of  Solomon  (I 
Kings  12  : 1-24).  937  B.  C. 
It  seems  at  first  sight  incredible  that  the  kingdom 
established  under  David  and  Solomon  should  be  di- 
vided so  easily.  Events  showed  that  the  process  of 
uniting  the  separative  forces  and  conditions  had  been 
incomplete.  Local  jealousies  and  rivalries  had  merely 
been  minimized  in  the  enthusiasm  of  united  conquest 
and  of  national  zeal.  During  the  peaceful  reign  of 
Solomon  they  had  an  opportunity,  and  quite  possibly 
an  excuse,  for  reassertion,  since  Solomon  was  suspected 
of  favoring  Judah  at  the  expense  of  the  rest  of  his  king- 
dom. The  compelling  reasons,  however,  for  the  break 
were  Solomon's  ambitions,  and  the  consequent  burdens 
which  his  subjects  felt  acutely.  They  did  not  dare  to 
disobey  Solomon,  but  demanded  relief  from  his  suc- 
cessor, who  betrayed  an  equally  despotic  temper.  Re- 
acting alike  against  this  denial  of  public  rights  and  their 
particular  grievance,  his  would-be  subjects  revolted. 

The  national  assembly  at  Shechem  to  confirm  Rehoboam  as  king 

and  its  plea  for  relief.     I  Kings  12 :  1-5. 
Rehoboam's  fatuous  reply  to  the  assembly's  demand.     12 :  6-15. 
The  entire  renunciation  of  allegiance  by  the  "ten  tribes."     12: 

16-20. 
Shemaiah's  counsel  to  Rehoboam  to  forego  civil  warfare.     12: 

21-24. 

The    disruption    had    important    consequences.     It 
substituted  in  place  of  a  power  which  promised  to  have 


48  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

a  wide-ranging  influence  two  small  kingdoms  which 
merely  opposed  and  neutralized  each  other.  It  seemed 
to  break  up  the  sense  of  unity  which  had  been  attained. 
It  even  opened  the  way  to  religious  degeneracy.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  really  marked  a  step  forward.  It 
saved  the  democratic  spirit,  so  characteristic  and  vital, 
which  enabled  prophetic  institutions  to  flourish.  It 
resulted  in  two  closely  related  yet  distinguishable  king- 
doms, Judah,  the  smaller  one,  conservative  in  habit  by 
reason  of  its  royal  house,  its  temple,  and  its  traditions; 
the  other,  Israel,  with  the  majority  of  the  people  and  of 
the  resources,  progressive  in  spirit,  sometimes  recklessly 
so.  Their  natural  rivalry  along  with  their  kinship 
made  for  a  real  and  rapid  national  progress. 

2.  Jeroboam's  Shrewd  but  Short-sighted  Schemes  for 
Establishing  the  New  Kingdom  (I  Kings  12  :  25- 
14 :  20). 
The  new  sovereign,  Jeroboam,  placed  on  the  throne  of 
Israel  by  the  revolting  tribes,  was  as  shrewd  as  David 
had  been  in  establishing  what  he  had  gained.  He  lost 
no  time  in  so  organizing  his  new  kingdom  that  its  in- 
terests quickly  became  distinct  from  those  of  Judah. 
He  recognized  two  national  sanctuaries,  at  the  extreme 
south  and  north,  and  set  up  in  each  a  golden  bull  as 
representing  Jehovah.  This  was  a  distinct  concession 
to  the  Canaanitish  idolatry,  which  was  much  to  the 
liking  of  many  of  his  subjects.  It  was  the  "sin"  for 
which  he  was  often  denounced  by  the  prophets  and 
writers  of  his  day  and  later.  The  stories  told  about 
him  emphasize  their  attitude.  Jeroboam  likewise  al- 
tered the  date  of  the  most  popular  festival  and  set  up 
his  own  priesthood. 

How   Jeroboam   made  the  Northern  kingdom   religiously   inde- 
pendent.    I  Kings  12 :  25-33. 


I 


THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  49 

How  his  attitude  was  variously  rebuked.     13  : 1-14  :  18, 
His  long  reign.     14 :  19,  20. 

Jeroboam  probably  regarded  his  religious  policy  as 
being  both  timely  and  essential.  He  looked  at  the 
matter  as  a  politician  might.  It  was  shrewd  and  effi- 
cacious. His  people  quickly  forgot  Jerusalem  or  the 
temple.  But  Jeroboam  deliberately  sacrificed  a  higher 
good  for  the  sake  of  gaining  an  immediate  advantage. 
The  temple  with  its  holy  of  holies  represented  the  un- 
seen Jehovah,  while  these  images,  erected  by  Jeroboam, 
encouraged  a  lapse  from  Mosaic  idealism.  For  the 
sake  of  political  advantage  Jeroboam  sacrificed  spiri- 
tuality. This  was  truly  a  capital  sin,  because  of  its 
consequences.  He  became  known  as  the  arch-inciter 
of  his  nation  to  that  habit  of  mind  that  proved  its  ruin. 

3.  The  First  Half  Century  of  Desultory  Conflict  Be- 
tween the  Two  Kingdoms  (I  Kings  14 :  2I- 
I6 :  28;  II  Chronicles  11-16).    937-887. 

JuDAH  Israel 

Rehoboam,  937-9201  Jeroboam  I,  937-915 

Abijam,  920-917  Nadab,  915-913 

Asa,  917-876  Baasha,  913-889 

Elah,  889-887 
Zimri,  887 
Omri,  887-875 

The  first  half  century  of  the  existence  of  the  two 
Httle  kingdoms  side  by  side  was  principally  a  time  of 
constant  clashes  between  them.  They  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  settle  down.  Jeroboam  shifted  his  capital  to 
Penuel  across  the  Jordan  (12 :  25),  possibly  because 
of  Rehoboam's  vigorous  attacks  (14  :  30)  upon  Shechem. 

» Regnal  dates  are  arrived  at  under  various  computations.  They  are  approxi- 
mately accurate.  No  student  need  be  disturbed  to  find  another  estimate  varying 
from  these  by  several  years. 


50  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

Jeroboam's  son,  Nadab,  after  a  very  short  reign,  was 
murdered  by  Baasha,  one  of  his  generals,  who  founded 
a  new  dynasty.  Baasha  was  a  vigorous  warrior  whose 
principal  exploit  was  blockading  Judah  in  the  days  of 
Asa  by  fortifying  Ramah  and  stopping  all  trade.  Asa 
countered  by  bribing  Benhadad  of  Damascus,  Baasha's 
nearest  neighbor  and  rival,  to  become  his  own  ally, 
urging  him  to  attack  Baasha's  possessions  (15  :  18-21) 
along  the  northern  border.  Baasha  had  to  withdraw 
to  Tirzah,  which  had  become  the  capital  of  the  Northern 
kingdom.  Baasha's  son  and  successor,  Elah,  after  a 
brief  reign  was  murdered  by  Zimri,  one  of  his  officers, 
who  in  turn  after  a  week's  reign  was  forced  to  self- 
destruction  by  Omri,  the  general,  who  had  been  elected 
king  by  the  army.  Thus  in  fifty  years  three  dynasties, 
with  a  total  of  five  kings,  had  reigned  over  Israel,  a 
troubled,  unfruitful,  bloody  period  of  the  strong  hand, 
presaging  ill  success  for  the  new  state. 

Meanwhile  in  Judah  the  situation  was  at  first  de- 
plorable, then  improved.  Rehoboam  lived  up  to  speci- 
fications. He  permitted  the  Canaanitish  Baalism,  to 
which  many  of  his  subjects  in  Jerusalem  were  devoted 
in  their  hearts,  to  have  full  sway.  He  felt  the  effects 
of  a  plundering  raid  by  Shishak  of  Egypt.  His  son, 
Abijam,  ruled  without  special  incident.  Asa,  his  suc- 
cessor, was  an  able  king  and  a  real  reformer.  He  rigor- 
ously rooted  out  the  Canaanitish  emblems  (15  :  13)  and 
purified  the  temple  from  its  encouragements  to  vice. 
When  Baasha  tried  to  blockade  his  trade  Asa  bribed 
Benhadad  of  Damascus  to  interfere.  He  thus  pur- 
chased temporary  freedom  with  a  permanent  license  to 
plunder.     It  was  a  blunder  of  great  magnitude. 

How  Rehoboam  permitted  Baalism  and  was  plundered  by  Shishak 
of  Egypt  and  warred  continually  with  Jeroboam.  I  Kings 
14 :  21-31. 


THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  51 

The  short  reign  of  Abijam  over  Judah.     15  : 1-8;  II  Chronicles  13. 
How  Asa  reformed  the  religious  situation  m  Judah  and  made  a 

questionable  alliance  against  Baasha  of  Israel  with  Benhadad. 

15:  9-24;  II  Chronicles  14-16.       ,      ^  ^^.        ,^    ^^  ^^    _, 
The  brief  reign  of  Nadab  over  Israel.     I  Kings  15 :  25-|8   31 
The  vigorous  reign  of  Baasha  over  Israel.     15  .  id9,  3U,  dt-io  .  /. 
The  short  reign  of  Elah  over  Israel.     16 :  8-14. 
The  reign  of  Zimri  for  one  week.     16 :  15-20. 

Through  these  minor  chronicles,  which  reflect  petty 
warfare  chiefly,  we  gain  a  gUmpse  or  two  of  the  greater 
world.  Shishak  of  the  twenty-second  Egyptian  dynas- 
ty boasts  on  his  own  monumental  inscription  at  Kar- 
nak  of  the  expedition  into  Palestine  during  which  he 
compelled  Rehoboam  and  others  to  pay  heavy  tribute. 
In  Benhadad  of  Damascus  we  take  note  of  the  firmly 
estabhshed  Aramean  kingdom  which  was  destined  to 
play  an  important  part  in  Hebrew  history  for  about 
two  centuries. 

The  three  outstanding  personalities  were  Jeroboam, 
Baasha,  and  Asa.  Jeroboam  and  Baasha  were  devoted 
to  warfare  and  cared  httle  for  other  measures.  Under 
them,  on  the  whole,  Israel  lost  ground.  Asa  was  a 
courageous  and  resolute  reformer,  but  not,  apparently, 
a  military  genius.  He  cared  for  his  people  and  led  the 
way  to  prosperity  as  he  understood  it,  but  his  measure 
for  obtaining  peace  was  really  an  assurance  of  wars 
(II  Chronicles  16:9). 

4.  The  Vigorous  Reign  of  Omri  over  Israel  (I  Kings 
16:21-28).  887-875  B.C. 
The  fourth  consecutive  Israelitish  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Omri,  a  capable  and  vigorous  sovereign. 
Asa  ruled  Judah  during  his  entire  reign.  Omri  brought 
about  great  changes.  The  "Moabite  Stone"  attests 
his  reconquest  of  Moab,  which  had  revolted  from  his 


52  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

predecessors.  He  was  able  to  hold  his  own  with  the 
Arameans  of  Damascus.  He  made  a  useful  alliance 
with  the  Phoenicians,  confirming  the  compact  by  the 
marriage  of  his  son,  Ahab,  with  Jezebel,  a  Sidonian 
princess.  He  showed  his  genius  as  a  ruler  by  the  selec- 
tion of  an  ideal  site  for  a  new  capital,  which  he  named 
Samaria.  It  quickly  became  a  real  rival  of  Jerusalem. 
Thus  Omri,  during  his  brief  reign,  gave  a  fresh  start  to 
Israel's  fortunes.  His  was,  however,  a  distinctly  politi- 
cal genius;  he  was  as  unreligious  as  Jeroboam. 

In  his  day  Assyria  became  once  more  a  menace  to 
the  smaller  states  west  of  the  Euphrates,  yet  not  im- 
mediately to  the  Hebrews.  The  great  Ashurnazirpal 
(884-858  B.  C),  who  made  the  very  mention  of  Assyria 
a  terror,  had  four  groups  of  powerful  foes  to  deal  with 
first.  These  were  the  Chaldeans,  fairly  recent  settlers 
from  southern  Arabia  about  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  who  added  greatly  to  the  general  resourcefulness 
and  resisting  pov/er  of  Babylonia;  the  Medes,  who  had 
begun  to  congregate  by  tribal  groups  in  western  Persia 
just  east  of  the  Zagros  Mountains;  the  mountaineers  of 
Urartu  near  Lake  Van,  persistent  and  formidable  raid- 
ers, kept  in  order  only  by  frequent  expeditions;  and 
the  Aramean  states  of  northern  Syria,  whose  courage, 
strength,  and  skill  in  warfare  afforded  for  over  a  century 
a  protective  barrier  for  Israel  and  Judah  against  As- 
syrian attack. 


5.  Ahab,  Jehoshaphat,  and  Their  Immediate  Suc- 
cessors. 
The  remainder  of  the  century  under  consideration 
was  covered  by  the  reigns  of  Ahab  in  Israel,  and  of 
Jehoshaphat  in  Judah  with  those  of  their  less  important 
successors. 


THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  53 

JuDAH                            Israel  Assyria 

Jehoshaphat,  876-851  Ahab,  875-853  Shalmaneser  III,  858- 

Joram,i  851-843  Ahaziah,  853-851  824 

Ahaziah,  843-842  Jehoram,  851-842 

These  thirty  years  or  so  witnessed  a  very  active  in- 
terchange between  the  Aramean  kingdom  of  Damascus 
and  the  two  Hebrew  states.  Ahab  and  Benhadad  were 
repeatedly  at  war.  Jehoshaphat  entered  these  con- 
flicts as  an  ally  of  Ahab  and  of  Jehoram.  Eventually 
Ahab  met  his  death,  and  Ahaziah  of  Judah  and  Je- 
horam lost  their  lives  as  a  result  of  this  same  warfare. 

Ahab's  fateful  marriage  with  Jezebel.     I  Kings  16 :  29-34. 

Benhadad's  unsuccessful  campaign  against  Israel.     20 : 1-21. 

His  second,  severe  defeat  by  Ahab  who  treated  him  leniently. 
20:22-34. 

Ahab's  denunciation  for  this  leniency  by  a  prophet.     20  :  35-43. 

The  period  of  peace  with  Damascus  (and  the  battle  of  Qarqar). 
22:1. 

Ahab's  proposal  to  Jehoshaphat  to  recapture  Ramoth-gilead. 
22 :  2-12. 

The  warning  of  Micaiah.     22 :  13-28. 

The  death  of  Ahab  in  the  battle.     22 :  29-40. 

Jehoshaphat's  glorious  reign  over  Judah :  his  reforms,  enterprise, 
educational  activity,  and  prosperity.  22 :  41-50;  II  Chron.  17-20. 

His  cooperation  with  Jehoram  against  Moab.     II  Kings  3 :  4-27. 

Ahaziah's  brief  reign  over  Israel.     I  Kings  22 :  51-53. 

His  vain  attempt  to  punish  Elijah.     II  Kings  1 : 1-18. 

Jehoram's  reign  over  Israel.     3 :  1-3. 

Joram's  reign  over  Judah.     8  :  16-24. 

The  joint  expedition  of  Jehoram  and  Ahaziah  against  Ramoth- 
gilead.     8 :  25-29. 

Their  death  at  the  order  of  Jehu.     10 :  14-28. 

After  Ahab  had  severely  defeated  Benhadad,  he 
made  friends  with  him  and  was  his  ally  at  the  battle 
of  Qarqar  in  Syria,  when  Shalmaneser  III  of  Assyria, 
the  pertinacious  successor  of  Ashurnazirpal,  won  an  in- 
decisive victory.  Ahab  was  really,  as  measured  by 
his  contemporaries,  a  wise,  far-sighted  sovereign.  He 
faced  great  difficulties  but  dealt  with  them  as  a  states- 

1  A  shorter  form  of  Jehoram. 


54  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

man  should.  He  was  lenient  to  Benhadad  because  he 
realized  the  value  of  Damascus  as  a  barrier  to  Assyria's 
advance.  Despite  his  tendency  to  pamper  himself 
(I  Kings  18  :  42;  21 :  4)  and  his  subservience  to  Jezebel, 
Ahab  was  a  brave  man  and  a  wise  ruler. 

Jehoshaphat  was  much  hke  Asa,  his  father.  He  took 
his  responsibilities  seriously  and  gave  his  energies  to 
the  upbuilding  of  his  people.  To  the  period  of  these 
sovereigns  it  is  fair  to  attribute  much  encouragement 
to  literature  and  progress  of  every  sort.  The  sense  of 
nationalism  was  so  strong  that  the  origin  of  the  fine 
prophetic  narratives  which  underlie  the  earlier  Biblical 
books  may  well  be  placed  at  this  time  (pp.  5,  21). 

6.    The  Growth  of  the  Prophetic  Order. 

An  outstanding  gain  of  this  century  over  the  one 
preceding  was  the  important  social  and  religious  lead- 
ership of  the  prophets.  At  the  various  crises  of  na- 
tional life  they  stepped  forth  to  remind  both  rulers  and 
people  of  the  ideals  to  which  all  should  be  loyal.  Many 
of  them,  of  course,  were  members  of  the  order  as  a  sort 
of  profession  which  would  give  them  an  easy  living. 
Ahab  maintained  a  troop  of  them,  most  of  whom  took 
care  to  give  such  counsel  as  he  desired.  There  were 
always  others,  like  Micaiah  (I  Kings  22)  who  would 
not  swerve  from  the  truth  as  they  saw  it.  Some  of 
them  may  have  been  short-sighted,  but  usually  they 
were  in  dead  earnest.  They  filled  an  invaluable  role 
in  community  and  national  life  in  these  two  Hebrew 
states. 

They  seemed  to  live  often  in  communities  of  their 
own.  Doubtless  they  had  varied  pursuits.  Some  were 
interested  in  following  up  and  in  recording  historical 
or  personal  data.  In  general  they  were  interested  in 
doing  anything  which  would  uphold  or  develop  the 


THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  55 

loyalty  of  the  people  to  Jehovah.     Elisha  was  their 
typical  leader. 

7.  The  Introduction  of  Phoenician  Baalism  by  Queen 

Jezebel  and  Its  Promotion. 
When  Jezebel  came  to  Samaria  as  the  bride  of  Ahab 
she  did  no  violence  to  any  one's  conscience  by  bring- 
ing her  worship  of  Baal  along  with  her.  Not  even  an 
Elijah  would  object  to  that  personal  concession.  Hence 
the  erection  of  a  temple  to  the  Phoenician  Baal  and  the 
importation  of  a  body  of  priests  may  not  have  been 
in  themselves  offensive  acts.  The  religious  nationalism 
of  that  era  assumed  that  each  people  had  its  god  to 
whom  it  must  be  loyal.  But  Jezebel  gradually  threw 
the  whole  influence  of  the  court  in  favor  of  the  pop- 
ular worship  of  her  Baal.  A  woman  every  inch  a 
queen,  of  great  personal  force,  Jezebel  exercised  a  wide- 
spread influence.  On  this  issue  she  may  have  met  with 
early  prophetic  opposition,  for  she  had  caused  many 
to  be  slain  (I  Kings  18:13).  Her  heart  became  set 
upon  the  substitution  of  the  Phoenician  Baal  for 
Jehovah  within  her  adopted  realm. 

8.  Elijah's  Successful  Championship  of  Jehovah  and 

His  Ways. 
At  this  crisis,  when  the  loyalty  of  the  Hebrews  to 
their  God  was  at  stake,  there  appeared  a  really  great 
prophetic  leader,  who  recalled  them  to  their  true  alle- 
giance. He  made  a  mighty  impression,  then  and  ever 
since  in  world  history,  as  a  uniquely  great  personahty. 
Elijah  represented  to  his  people  their  treasured  past. 
He  came  from  the  wilderness  and  emphasized  the  sim- 
pHcity  and  directness  of  the  nomad  faith.  To  him 
Jehovah  was  Israel's  rightful  God,  jealous  of  their 
recognition  of  any  other  deity,  protector  of  His  people 


5Q  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

at  all  times.     If  they  were  to  keep  His  favor  they  could 
not  serve  two  masters  or  have  varying  moral  standards. 

Elijah  appears  suddenly  in  Israel,  predicts  a  drought,  then  dis- 
appears.    I  Kings  17. 

He  appears  to  Ahab,  who  has  sought  for  him  in  vain,  to  demand 
a  contest  with  the  representatives  of  Baalism.     18 :  1-19. 

The  victorious  contest  at  Mt.  Carmel  and  breaking  of  the  drought. 
18 :  20-46. 

Elijah's  flight  to  Horeb,  where  he  received  a  threefold  divine  com- 
mission.    19 :  1-18. 

His  call  of  Elisha  to  prophetic  service.     19: 19-21. 

His  championship  of  popular  rights  against  the  legalized  violence 
of  the  king.     21. 

His  message  of  death  to  Ahaziah  for  the  latter's  lack  of  loyalty  to 
Jehovah.     II  Kings  1. 

His  disappearance  into  the  divine  presence.     2 : 1-12. 

Of  these  stirring  stories,  exhibiting  a  rugged,  stern, 
pitiless,  lonely  figure,  those  concerning  the  contest  at 
Carmel,  the  interview  at  Jezreel,  and  Elijah's  final  dis- 
appearance are  most  important.  No  greater  crisis  had 
confronted  Israel  than  the  religious  peril  which  drew 
Elijah  from  his  solitude.  Jezebel  seemed  on  the  very 
verge  of  success,  largely  because  few  dared  to  face  her 
wrath  or  were  influential  enough  to  challenge  it.  Elijah 
dared  to  voice  what  many  thought.  His  ringing  chal- 
lenge on  Mt.  Carmel  to  choose  between  Jehovah  and 
Baal  caused  an  overwhelming,  impassioned  response. 
Yet  it  had  to  be  followed  up.  When  the  prophet  fled 
to  Horeb,  he  was  made  to  see  that  a  campaign  must  be 
set  on  foot  before  his  task  could  be  completed.  The 
uprooting  of  Baalism  took  a  generation.  Before  Elijah 
disappeared  into  the  fiery  symbolism  of  the  heavenly 
presence  (6  :  17),  he  had  taken  two  important  steps. 
At  Jezreel  he  had  championed  popular  justice,  and  at 
Elisha's  own  home  he  had  summoned  him  to  his  side  as 
the  coadjutor  w^ho  would  execute  the  great  programme. 
Elisha's  place  in  history  is  thus  that  of  one  who  ap- 


THE  CENTURY  OF  REDEDICATION  57 

pears  at  an  opportune  moment  to  put  in  motion  forces 
already  stirred.  The  prophetic  order  was  the  real  rock 
of  popular  loyalty  to  Jehovah. 

9.  Elisha's  Completion  of  the  Campaign  against 
Phoenician  Baalism. 
The  story  of  the  career  of  Elisha,  despite  the  legen- 
dary element  in  it,  pictures  a  forceful  life,  quite  distinct 
in  its  character  from  that  of  Elijah,  but  contributing 
in  its  own  fashion  to  the  establishing  of  popular  loyalty 
to  Jehovah. 

How  Elisha  took  Elijah's  place  of  leadership.     II  Kings  2 :  1-18. 
Various  instances  of  his  dealings  with  people.     2:  19-25;  4 : 1-7. 
The  great  lady  of  Shunem  and  her  experience — a  picture  of  life  in 

Israel.     4 :  ^37;  8 :  1-6. 
Elisha' s  care  for  the  prophets.     4  :  38-44. 
The  healing  of  Naaman  the  Syrian.     5. 
How  the  prophet  recovered  the  axe-head.     6 : 1-7. 
How  Jehovah  pi*otected  him  against  the  Syrians.     6  :  8-23. 
The  siege  of  Samaria  and  its  relief.     6  :  24-7  :  20. 
Elisha  announces  his  future  to  Hazael.     8 :  7-15. 
His  anointing  of  Jehu  as  king  over  Israel.     9 :  1-14. 
Jehu's  murder  of  the  two  kings,  Jehoram  and  Ahaziah.     9 :  15-29. 
The  queenly  death  of  Jezebel.     9  :  30-37. 
The  desti-uction  at  Jehu's  order  of  the  house  of  Ahab  and  of  the 

worshippers  of  Baal.     10  :  1-28. 
Elisha's  last  act  before  his  death.     13 :  14-21. 

Elisha  was  clearly  one  who  lived  on  intimate  terms 
with  the  people.  They  had  implicit  confidence  in  him. 
During  his  long  life  he  was  able  to  render  great  services 
to  his  country,  so  that  the  king  called  him  its  great 
bulwark  and  defender  (13  :  14).  The  climax  of  his  life, 
however,  was  the  rooting  out  of  Baalism  through  Jehu. 
Whether  he  approved  of  the  ruthless  and  sweeping 
character  of  the  revolution  and  of  the  reform  move- 
ment, he  initiated  them  both.  In  all  probability  he 
expected  bloodshed,  and  stopped  at  nothing  which 
would  clear  out  of  Israel  the  hated  abomination.     It  is 


58  OLD  TESTAIMENT  HISTORY 

equally  probable  that  Jehu,  once  given  the  opportunity 
and  impulse,  executed  his  commission  cold-bloodedly 
and  with  pitiless  determination. 

10.    The  Century  as  a  Whole. 

It  is  undeniable  that  during  this  century  the  North- 
em  kingdom  took  the  lead.  It  was  the  home  and  the 
scene  of  activity  of  the  prophetic  order.  Under  Omri 
it  found  itself,  got  into  relationship  with  its  world,  drew 
into  an  alliance  with  Judah.  Neither  Omri  nor  Ahab 
seemed  to  have  felt  with  any  keenness  the  disloyalty 
to  Jehovah  involved  in  giving  Jezebel  freedom  of  initia- 
tive. The  glory  of  blocking  her  purposes  and  forever 
establishing  the  loyalty  of  the  people  to  Jehovah  their 
God  is  due  to  the  prophetic  order  and  its  great  leaders. 
Nominally,  at  least,  the  people  were  always  faithful 
thereafter  to  Jehovah,  their  God;  but  the  bloody  work 
of  Jehu  broke  up  the  friendly  relations  between  the 
two  kindred  peoples. 


THE  CENTURY  OF  THE  GROWTH  OF  EACH 
KINGDOM  TO  ITS  GREATEST  EXTENT 

II  Kings  10:29-15:7;  II  Chronicles  22-27 
(842-740  B.  C.) 

JuDAH  Israel 

Athaliah,  842-836  Jehu,  842-814 

Joash,i  836-796  (8)  Jehoahaz,  814-797 

Amaziah,  796  (8)-782  or  789  Jehoash,  797-781 

Uzziah,  782  or  789-740  Jeroboam  II,  781-740 
(Jotham  co-regent,  751-740) 

During  the  next  hundred  years  the  Hebrew  peoples 
attained  the  very  peak  of  their  prosperity,  peace,  and 
powerfulness.  Never  were  they  as  great  or  as  wealthy 
or  as  exultantly  happy  as  they  were  about  the  close  of 
the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II.  Yet  the  bril- 
liant close  of  the  century's  experience  was  prefaced  by 
a  half -century  of  bitter,  even  tragic,  yet  rather  salutary 
experience.  Jehu's  violent  measures  for  ending  the 
menace  of  Phoenician  Baalism,  however  well  inten- 
tioned,  were  almost  as  disastrous  to  his  own  dynasty 
and  i)eople  as  to  those  against  whom  he  acted.  Neither 
he  nor  his  cousin  of  Judah  could  stand  against  Hazael 
of  Damascus.  But  the  day  of  Aramean  supremacy 
passed  and  the  Hebrew  peoples  prospered  greatly. 
They  thus  were  brought  to  the  end  of  the  four  cen- 
turies of  growth  in  Canaan,  equipped  for  creative  work. 

I.    The  Relentless  Programme  of  Jehu  (842-814). 

Jehu,  chosen  by  Elisha  to  complete  the  desired  revo- 
lution, had  a  soldier's  view  of  duty.     With  the  sanction 

» Joash  and  Jehoash  are  really  one  name,  used  interchangeably. 
59 


60  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

of  the  religious  leaders  who  were  loyal  to  Jehovah,  he 
carried  his  programme  of  destruction  through  to  the 
end.  He  slew  the  two  sovereigns,  Queen  Jezebel,  the 
whole  house  of  Ahab,  and  its  responsible  adherents, 
the  "brethren"  of  King  Ahaziah,  and  the  adherents 
and  leaders  of  Baal-worship — all  in  all  a  very  great 
number  of  important  people.  It  is  possible  that  Elisha 
disapproved  his  relentlessness,  but  unlikely.  Both 
Elijah  and  Elisha  had  enforced  such  measures  them- 
selves. It  was  an  age  of  ready,  unsparing  bloodshed. 
The  participation  of  such  a  leader  as  Jehonadab,  the 
Rechabite,  may  warrant  the  inference  that  Jehu  led  a 
reaction  against  the  ruling  classes  which  dangerously 
weakened  his  kingdom  by  reducing  its  skilled  de- 
fenders. At  any  rate  he  broke  up  the  friendly  alliance 
between  the  two  kindred  peoples. 

The  trend  of  Jehu's  reign.     II  Kings  10 :  29-31. 
Hazael's  conquest  of  his  east-Jordan  lands.     10 :  32-36. 

The  verdict  of  thoughtful  men  in  later  years  was 
against  the  wisdom  of  Jehu's  poHcy  (Hosea  1:4).  It 
established  Jehovah's  supremacy,  but  at  a  terrible  na- 
tional cost.  It  did  not  really  root  out  the  pagan  ten- 
dencies which  permeated  the  life  of  both  peoples.  No 
real  rehgious  reforms  can  be  carried  through  by  violence. 

The  worst  effects  of  Jehu's  policy  did  not  appear  un- 
til after  his  death.  Little  is  said  about  his  reign. 
Jehu  was  evidently  no  such  brave  leader  as  Ahab. 
When  Shalmaneser  III  of  Assyria,  just  at  the  opening 
of  Jehu's  reign,  came  with  an  overwhelming  force  to 
wage  war  against  Hazael  of  Syria,  Jehu  sent  Shalma- 
neser, as  the  Black  Obehsk  testifies,  a  generous  tribute 
in  token  of  submission.  As  a  stroke  of  policy  it  was  as 
unwise  as  the  earlier  tribute  of  Asa  to  Benhadad.  It 
gave  Assyria  an  excuse  for  conquest  which  was  never 
forgotten.     Moreover,  when  Shalmaneser  had  departed, 


THE  CENTURY  OF  GREATEST  GROWTH    61 

Hazael  took  away  from  Jehu  the  whole  east-Jordan 
territory  north  of  Arnon. 

2.    New  Alignments  in  Western  Asia. 

The  savage  and  relentless  policy  of  Ashurnazirpal 
(884-858),  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made, 
was  followed  without  a  break  by  his  equally  famous  son, 
Shalmaneser  HI  (858-824  B.  C).    He  was  an  inde- 
fatigable campaigner,  leading  his  armies  for  many  years 
in  person.     His  principal  objective  was  the  strip  be- 
tween the  ocean  and  the  desert  from  Carchemish  south- 
ward.    Its  three  principal  states  were  Hamath,  Damas- 
cus,  and   Israel.    These,  in   combination   with   each 
other  and  with  the  smaller  states,  were  able  for  a  time 
to  hold  even  Assyria  in  check.     But  Assyria  attacked 
repeatedly;  some  of  the  allies,  Jehu  among  them,  re- 
fused to  fight;  Hamath  was  forced  to  submit.     But 
Hazael  determined  to  resist  to  the  last.     He  could  not 
expel  the  invader  or  defeat  him,  but  he  held  Damascus 
against  all  assaults.     Out  of  six  campaigns  the  Assyrian 
sovereign  got  some  territory  and  much  plunder,  but 
little  glory.    He  had,  however,  established  a  poUcy  of 
conquest  from  which  his  successors  did  not  swerve. 

3.    The  Dominance  of  Damascus  over  Israel. 

Hazael's  prompt  vengeance  upon  Jehu  for  his  with- 
drawal from  the  anti-Assyrian  alliance  was  followed  by 
a  long  period  of  humiliating  oppression,  during  which 
the  ruler  of  Damascus  had  Israel  at  his  power.  The 
result  was  a  distressing  record. 

The  oppression  of  Israel  and  Judah  by  the  Syrians  in  the  days  of 

Joash  and  Jehoahaz.     II  Kings  13 : 1-3,  22;  12 :  17.  18. 
The  humiliating  weakness  of  Israel.     13 :  7-9. 
The  "savior"  who  delivered  Israel.     13:  4-6,  23. 
The  reign  of  Jehoash  over  Israel.     13 :  10-13. 


62  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

How  the  dying  Elisha  tried  to  arouse  the  ambition  of  Jehoash. 

13:14-19. 
The  growing  formidableness  of  Israel  under  Jehoash.     13:  24-25; 

14 : 8-14. 

During  the  whole  reign  of  Hazael  and  that  of  Ben- 
hadad  III,  his  son,  the  Syrians  were  the  superiors  of 
the  neighbors  to  the  south.  They  not  only  reduced 
Israel  in  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz  to  extremities,  but  at- 
tacked Judah  with  such  vigor  that  Joash  of  Judah 
bought  Hazael  off  with  a  heavy  bribe.  Eventually, 
however,  an  Assyrian  sovereign,  Adad-Nirari  (810-781 
B.  C.)»  a  warrior  as  eflScient  as  Shalmaneser  III,  made 
three  expeditions  to  the  debatable  ** west-land"  in  the 
course  of  which  he  savagely  attacked  Damascus  and 
greatly  lowered  its  power.  This  disaster  evened  the 
strength  of  Damascus  and  Israel,  so  that  Jehoash  of 
Israel  was  able  to  win  back  some  of  his  lost  territory. 
Thereafter  Israel  steadily  increased  in  power. 

4.  The  Enthronement  of  Joash  in  Judah  and  His 
Long,  Quiet  Reign. 
When  Ahaziah  was  slain  at  Jehu's  command,  the 
haughty  queen-mother,  Athaliah,  true  daughter  of 
Queen  Jezebel,  was  able  by  reason  of  her  great  influ- 
ence and  her  unscrupulousness  to  seize  the  throne  of 
Judah  (842-836)  and  hold  it  for  six  years.  She  tried 
to  slay  every  true  heir  to  the  throne,  but  her  own 
daughter,  the  wife  of  the  high  priest,  saved  the  little 
prince  Joash,  then  a  baby,  and  kept  him  safely  con- 
cealed for  six  years.  A  dramatic  revolution,  led  by  the 
high  priest,  placed  Joash  on  the  throne  for  a  long  reign, 
which  was  on  the  whole  of  value. 

The  rescue  of  the  infant  Joash  from  the  murderous  intent  of 

Athaliah.     II  Kings  11 :  1-4. 
The   dramatic   downfall   of   the   usurping   queen.     11 : 5-16;    II 

Chronicles  23. 


THE  CENTURY  OF  GREATEST  GROWTH    63 

The  affirmation  of  national  loyalty  to  Jehovah  by  the  people  of 

Judah  and  abolition  of  Phoenician  Baalism.     II  Kings  11 :  17-20. 
The  proposal  to  repair  the  temple.     11:21-12:6;  II  Chronicles 

24 :  1-5. 
How  Joash  promoted  the  delayed  work  of  repair.     12:7-16;  II 

Chronicles  24 :  6-14. 
The  deterioration  of  Joash  after  Jehoiada's  death.     II  Chronicles 

24 :  15-22. 
Hazael's  threatened  attack  on  Jerusalem  avoided  by  a  bribe. 

II  Kings  12 :  17,  18;  II  Chronicles  24 :  23,  24. 
The  violent  death  of  Joash  after  a  long  reign.    II  Kings  12 :  19-21. 

The  revolution  which  placed  Joash  on  the  throne  of 
Judah  had  a  rehgious  as  well  as  a  political  significance. 
It  was  a  spontaneous  act  of  the  best  blood  of  Judah. 
It  resulted  in  a  solemn  renewal  of  the  national  loyalty 
to  Jehovah,  and  in  a  rooting  out  of  the  Phoenician 
Baalism  which,  under  Athaliah's  influence,  had  gotten 
a  dangerous  hold  upon  Judah.  Naturally  the  proposal 
was  made  to  repair  the  temple.  The  young  king  de- 
sired this  and  suggested  a  way  of  realizing  the  needed 
funds.  The  priests  were  too  absorbed  by  other  inter- 
ests to  push  the  repairs.  Finally  the  king  himself  took 
charge,  popular  interest  revived,  and  the  work  was 
well  and  quickly  done.  Apparently  the  king's  will  was 
supreme. 

According  to  the  Chronicler  Joash  deteriorated  in 
later  life.  He  resented  the  candid  criticism  of  Zecha- 
riah  the  prophet  (II  Chronicles  24  :  20-22),  and  had 
him  stoned  to  death.  Hazael's  attempt  to  capture  Je- 
rusalem quickly  followed.  Resentment  over  the  read- 
iness of  Joash  to  strip  the  temple  to  buy  Hazael  off  may 
have  led  to  his  sudden  murder.  On  the  whole,  however, 
the  reign  of  Joash  was  of  value  to  his  people  of  Judah. 

5.    The  Reign  of  His  Successor,  Amaziah,  over  Judah. 
Amaziah,  like  his  father,  had  a  long  reign  and  a 
rather  successful  one. 


64  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  reign  of  Amazlah  like  that  of  his  father.     II  Kings  14 :  1-4. 
His  refusal  to  execute  clan  justice.     14  :  5,  6. 
His  successful  war  with  Edom.     14  :  7,  22;  II  Chronicles  25  :  5-13. 
His    challenge   to   Jehoash   of    Israel.     14:8-11;    II    Chronicles 

25:14-21. 
How  Jehoash  broke  down  the  defenses  of  Jerusalem  and  exacted  a 

heavy  ransom  from  Amaziah.     14  :  12-14. 
The  violent  death  of  Amaziah.     14 :  15-20. 

Amaziah  promised  well  at  the  outset  of  his  reign. 
He  showed  excellent  judgment  in  dealing  with  his 
father's  murderers.  His  war  against  Edom  was  a  sane 
attempt  to  keep  an  open  highway  of  commerce  to  the 
port  of  Elath.  But  general  approval  weakened  his 
judgment  and  led  him  to  challenge  the  more  redoubta- 
ble Jehoash  of  Israel,  who  so  thoroughly  humiliated 
Amaziah  that  his  people  were  alienated.  Yet  his  reign 
as  a  whole  prepared  the  way  for  Uzziah's  success. 

6.  The  Prosperous  Reigns  of  Uzziah  over  Judah  and 
of  Jeroboam  11  over  Israel  (about  780-740  B.  C). 
It  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  sacred  literature  that  the 
next  forty  years,  so  genuinely  important  in  the  life  of 
each  Hebrew  nation,  should  be  treated  so  casually  by 
the  author  of  Kings.  The  two  kings,  Uzziah  and 
Jeroboam  II,  were  rulers  of  great  ability.  Their  reigns 
were  practically  contemporaneous.  Their  peoples 
gained  much  under  their  leadership.  Their  supremacy 
was  unquestioned  in  their  areas.  Not  until  the  very 
end  of  the  period  did  even  Assyria  begin  to  threaten. 
Yet  two  formal,  almost  barren  notices  are  all  that  were 
used  in  Kings. 

The  long  reign  of  Uzziah  over  Judah.     II  Kings  14  :  21,  22;  15 : 1-7; 

II  Chronicles  26  :  1-5. 
His  schemes  for  the  safety,  prosperity,  and  peace  of  his  land. 

II  Kings  14  :  22;  II  Chronicles  26  :  6-15. 
How  Uzziah  became  stricken  with  leprosy.     II  Chronicles  26 : 

16-23. 


THE  CENTURY  OF  GREATEST  GROWTH    65 

The  regency  of  Jotham.     II  Kings  15:  5;  II  Chronicles  27. 
The  career  of  Jeroboam  as  king  of  Israel.     II  Kings  14 :  23-29. 

In  the  case  of  Uzziah  the  Chronicler  contributes  an 
interesting  series  of  facts.  He  extended  the  boundaries 
of  his  kingdom,  encouraged  agriculture,  protected  com- 
merce, equipped  his  army,  and  fortified  Jerusalem.  It 
was  the  very  sense  of  greatness  due  to  these  successes 
that  led  him  to  demand  the  right  to  share  in  priestly 
functions.  Uzziah  seems  to  have  carried  to  a  trium- 
phant conclusion  the  plans  of  his  predecessors.  In  his 
day  Jerusalem  grew  rapidly  in  population,  leadership, 
resources,  and  distinction.  It  became  the  great  city 
of  Isaiah's  active  life,  great  alike  in  evils  and  in  power 
for  good.  For  the  last  quarter  of  his  reign  Uzziah, 
stricken  with  leprosy,  was  supplanted  by  his  son, 
Jotham,  as  regent. 

Jeroboam  II  was  a  notable  warrior.  He  reconquered 
the  lost  east-Jordan  territory,  freed  his  people  from  the 
fear  of  Syria,  and  extended  his  territory  clear  toHamath. 
Under  him  Israel  reached  its  largest  area  and  its  great- 
est power.  No  wonder  the  people  of  Israel,  as  well  as 
those  of  Judah,  were  loud  in  praises  of  their  sovereigns. 
The  writings  of  the  prophets,  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Isaiah 
furnish  ample  proof  of  their  justification. 

7.    The  Significant  Social  and  Other  Changes  of  This 
Period. 

The  net  result  of  these  two  long  reigns  coming  at  the 
close  of  an  awakening  century  was  a  marked  change 
from  the  older  simplicity  of  life.  The  extravagant 
ideals  of  Solomon  gained  great  headway.  In  particular 
the  victories  of  each  king  and  the  established  peace  that 
followed  them  brought  in  much  wealth  which  was  not 
equally  distributed.    The  more  fortunate  of  the  people 


66  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

used  their  power  thus  gained  oppressively.  The  two 
capitals,  Jerusalem  and  Samaria,  became  centres  of 
wealth  and  vulgar  display.  The  nobles  vied  in  build- 
ing luxurious  palaces.  Class  distinctions  developed 
along  lines  of  wealth.  Men  used  their  power  unscru- 
pulously to  make  themselves  richer  or  more  powerful, 
declaring  at  the  same  time,  and  even  believing  in,  their 
fervent  loyalty  to  each  dynasty  and  to  Jehovah,  Israel's 
and  Judah's  God. 

During  this  century  the  prophetic  and  priestly  or- 
ders also  seem  to  have  attained  a  strength  and  an  in- 
fluence not  before  experienced.  Since  the  days  of 
Solomon  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  had  been  under  the 
royal  control.  Yet  its  priesthood  dared  to  resist  Uz- 
ziah's  will  (II  Chronicles  26 :  17-19),  and  popular  con- 
viction went  with  them.  An  extraordinary  group  of 
prophets  came  to  the  front  to  voice  Jehovah's  protest 
against  the  evils  of  the  day.  These  religious  gains  were 
paralleled  by  a  rise  in  ethical  tone.  When  Amaziah 
refused  to  subject  the  kinsfolk  of  his  father's  murderers 
to  the  ban  he  abrogated  a  custom  of  immemorial  stand- 
ing. To  substitute  individual  responsibility  in  place 
of  clan  or  family  solidarity  was  an  important  step  up- 
ward ethically  and  socially. 

To  this  stirring  century  may  be  attributed  more  of 
the  literature  which  is  at  the  basis  of  the  earlier  Old 
Testament  historical  books.  The  prophetic  narratives 
of  early  history  had  surely  been  published,  likewise  the 
narratives  embodied  in  the  Books  of  Judges,  Samuel, 
and  I  Kings. 

8.    The  Warning  Voices  of  Amos  and  Hosea  in  the 
Northern  Kingdom  (750  B.  C,  onward). 
Among  those  who  viewed  this  frenzied  life  with  a 
certain  detachment  and  rated  it  at  its  real  value  were 


THE  CENTURY  OF  GREATEST  GROWTH    67 

two  men  who  were  the  true  successors  of  Gad,  Nathan, 
Micaiah,  and  EUjah,  earnest  prophets  who  stood  ready 
to  declare  at  any  cost  their  convictions. 

One  of  these  was  Amos,  a  farmer  of  Judah,  who 
oraved  the  displeasure  of  Jeroboam  and  his  court  in 
order  to  remind  the  people  of  the  Northern  kingdom 
that,  since  Jehovah  was  essentially  a  righteous  Being 
and  could  not  in  consequence  condone  social  injustice 
and  corruption.  He  would  exact  a  reckoning  from  His 
persistently  disobedient  people,^  probably  through  His 
use  of  the  Assyrian  foe,  whose  unchanging  purpose  of 
conquest  could  be  safely  assumed. 

Not  much  later  than  Amos,  and  before  the  close  of 
the  period,  another  prophet,  Hosea,  arose  in  the  North- 
ern kingdom.  Hosea  was  a  cultured  patriot,  an  ardent 
lover  of  his  own  country  and  people,  yet  no  less  clear 
in  his  characterization  of  the  underlying  evils  of  the 
day.  Hosea  was  led  through  a  bitter  family  experience 
to  realize  Jehovah's  inextinguishable  spirit  of  love. 
This  made  him  more  than  a  critic;  he  became  an  inter- 
preter. While  condemning  even  more  powerfully  than 
Amos  the  social  and  religious  evils  of  the  day,  he  yet 
declared  that  Jehovah's  purpose  in  punishment  would 
be  not  destructive  but  redemptive.  His  two  great  as- 
sertions of  God's  enduring  love  and  redemptive  purpose 
gave  a  fresh  start  to  constructive  religious  thinking  in 
an  age  which  seemed  given  over  to  religious  indiffer- 
ence or  formalism,  while  the  incisive  declaration  of 
Amos  that  God  would  hold  His  people  up  to  His  own 
standards  of  righteousness  quickened  a  sense  of  social 
responsibility.  Each  prophet  assumed  that  the  As- 
syrian would  be  the  Divine  instrument  of  punishment, 
not  that  there  was  any  immediate  danger,  but  because 

*  For  the  fuller  setting  forth  of  all  prophetic  material  see  the  second  volume  of  this 
series.  Old  Testament  Prophecy. 


68  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

the  Assyrian  policy  of  conquest  was  well  known  and 
understood. 

9.    The  Closing  Days  of  the  Century. 

Despite  these  warning  voices,  heard  while  Jeroboam 
and  Uzziah  were  still  enthroned,  the  last  years  of  these 
two  sovereigns  were  glorious  years.  Something  of  the 
loyalty  and  pride  of  the  average  citizen  of  Jerusalem 
can  be  read  between  the  lines  of  Isaiah's  early  utter- 
ances. Jeroboam  II  maintained  his  ascendancy  to  the 
very  end  of  his  reign.  Measured  by  modern  standards 
each  country  was  on  its  way  to  a  yet  greater  future. 
All  these  dreams  were  destined  to  be  dissolved  speedily 
in  the  face  of  the  new  Assyrian  advance  just  gaining 
headway.  But  the  Hebrew  people  had  now  reached 
their  topmost  national  development.  God  could  be- 
gin their  real  reUgious  training. 


VI 


THE  CENTURY  OF  VAIN  RESISTANCE 
AGAINST  ASSYRIAN  AGGRESSION 

II  Kings  15:8-21:26;  II  Chronicles  27-33 
(740-639  B.  C.) 


' JUDAH 

Jotham,  740-735 
Ahaz,  735-715  (?) 
Hezekiah,  715-686 
Manasseh,  686-641 
Amon.  641-639 


Israel 
Zechariah  and  Shal- 

liim,  740 
Menahem,  740-736 
Pekahiah,  736-735 
Pekah,  735-732 
Hoshea,  732-722 
End  of  Northern 

Kingdom 


A  flflVPT  A 

Tiglath-pileser  IV,  745- 

727 
Shalmaneser  V,  727-722 
Sargon  II,  722-705 
Sennacherib,  704-682 
Esarhaddon,  680-668 
Ashurbanipal,  668-625 


With  the  reappearance  of  able  Assyrian  sovereigns 
bent  upon  the  conquest  of  all  Western  Asia  and  of 
Egypt,  relentless  and  persistent  in  their  execution  of 
this  policy,  and  more  than  ever  ingenious  in  devising 
measures  to  make  their  conquests  permanent,  a  new 
political  programme  began  in  western  Asia  which  put 
an  end  to  the  political  aspirations  of  the  smaller  sover- 
eignties of  Palestine  and  Syria.  Judah  fought  for  half 
a  century  before  submitting  to  a  tribute-paying  status, 
but  with  the  rise  of  the  great  Tiglath-pileser  and  his 
new  imperialism  that  outcome  was  more  or  less  in- 
evitable. Assyria's  overwhelming  prowess  affected  the 
development  and  the  destinies  of  the  Hebrew  people 
so  deeply  that  the  middle  of  the  eighth  centiuy  may  be 
counted  as  a  third  great  turning-point  in  Hebrew  his- 
tory, comparable  with  the  entrance  into  Canaan  and 
the  disruption  of  Solomon's  kingdom. 


70  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

At  this  time  the  real  test  of  the  preceding  four  cen- 
turies of  organized  reHgious  growth  took  place.  The 
Hebrew  peoples  were  threatened  with  absorption  into 
the  Assyrian  empire.  They  naturally  relied  upon  Je- 
hovah for  protection  and  multiplied  their  devotedness  to 
Him.  This  situation  enabled  the  four  prophets  of  the 
half  century  following  750  B.  C.^  to  reinterpret  God's 
character  and  demands  in  moral  and  spiritual  terms 
rather  than  in  terms  of  sacrificial  worship.  They 
pointed  out  the  sins  of  the  people  and  Jehovah's  prob- 
able use  of  the  Assyrian  invader  to  awaken  the  public 
conscience.  They  appealed  for  a  loyalty  to  God  which 
would  transform  lives  and  affirmed  a  certain  future  on 
such  a  basis.  Thus  was  a  political  tragedy  converted 
into  a  means  of  spiritual  and  moral  uphft,  and  of  na- 
tional assurance.     It  was  a  real  miracle. 

I.  Tiglath-pileser  IV  and  His  Policy  of  Conquest 
/745-727B.C.). 

During  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II  three 
relatively  weak  sovereigns  occupied  the  throne  of  As- 
syria. They  gave  no  concern  to  the  people  of  distant 
parts.  But  about  746  B.  C.  there  arose,  perhaps  out 
of  humble  origin,  one  of  the  greatest  military  monarchs 
of  early  history,  Tiglath-pileser  IV.  He  was  not  only 
a  military  genius  but  an  administrator  of  unusual  ca- 
pacity. Not  content  to  ravage  a  country  and  lay  it 
under  heavy  tribute,  Tiglath-pileser  instituted  a  regu- 
lar policy  of  the  deportation  of  the  most  aggressive  por- 
tion of  its  population,  settling  alien  peoples,  often  from 
the  Assyrian  homeland,  in  the  abandoned  districts. 
Thus  he  hoped  to  prevent  rebellions  and  gradually  to 
unify  the  empire. 

This  redoubtable  leader  gave  his  earliest  attention 

»See  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  p.  27. 


CENTURY  OF  ASSYRIAN  AGGRESSION    71 

to  Babylonia  and  to  the  countries  east  and  north  of 
Assyria.  In  742  B.  C.  he  was  free  to  deal  with  Arpad 
and  other  Aramean  states.  Two  years  later  Arpad 
was  conquered,  a  signal  for  the  prompt  appearance  of 
gifts  of  friendship  from  the  little  states  to  the  south. 
About  four  years  later  his  campaigning  against  these 
peoples  began,  and  brought  about  the  formation  of  a 
formidable  coalition  of  nineteen  states,  including  North- 
ern Israel,  to  resist  Assyrian  demands.  Had  this  alli- 
ance held  together  under  trusted  and  competent  lead- 
ership, even  Tiglath-pileser  might  have  been  defied. 
One  of  the  first  to  yield  when  the  Assyrian  army  ap- 
peared in  south  Syria  was  Menahem  of  Israel  (II  Kings 
15  :  19,  20).  He  paid  a  heavy  ransom  and  submitted. 
Thereupon  Tiglath-pileser  conquered  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  coalition  one  by  one,  added  all  northern 
Syria  to  the  territory  of  his  empire,  applied  his  policy 
of  deportation  and  colonization  extensively,  and  went 
back  to  his  capital  at  last  triumphant.  The  ultimate 
doom  of  Damascus,  Samaria,  and  Jerusalem  was  clear. 

2.  The  Situation  in  Palestine  as  Interpreted  by  Pro- 
phetic Minds. 
The  prophet  Hosea  was  probably  active  during  the 
disquieting  years  of  Tiglath-pileser's  advances  into 
Syria  and  Palestine.  Isaiah  of  Jerusalem,  too,  as  a 
young  man  just  beginning  his  prophetic  career,  was  a 
keen  observer  of  his  strategy.  To  each  mind  the  As- 
syrian became  the  expression  and  instrument  of  Divine 
displeasure  with  His  people.  Jehovah  was  going  to 
permit  the  foreign  invader  to  attack  Palestine,  not  be- 
cause He  was  impotent,  but  because  no  other  measure 
seemed  adequate  to  rouse  the  Hebrew  peoples  from 
their  self-satisfaction,  selfishness,  and  absorption  in  un- 
righteous aims  and  to  quicken  their  conscience.     These 


72  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

prophets  justified  the  Divine  action  by  giving  it  a  moral 
meaning. 

Hosea  quite  despaired  of  his  own  people.  They  had 
gone  too  far.  He  had  the  bitter  experience  of  seeing 
the  Northern  kingdom  go  rapidly  down  to  certain  ruin. 
At  best  he  could  put  his  faith  in  God's  love,  which 
would  be  persistently  redemptive.  Isaiah,  on  the  other 
hand,  could  take,  at  the  outset  of  his  prophetic  career, 
a  less  despairing  view.  His  consistent  advice  to  Ahaz 
was  to  keep  faith  with  Jehovah  and  to  have  faith  in 
Him. 

3.  The  Dramatically  Rapid  Downfall  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom  (740-722  B.  C). 
At  the  end  of  Jeroboam  II's  reign  Israel  seemed 
secure,  yet  in  eighteen  years  it  went  to  ruin.  During 
that  short  time  there  were  six  rulers  and  four  changes 
of  dynasty.  Internal  strife,  foreign  invasion,  and 
crushing  tribute  each  contributed  to  the  social  and 
political  chaos  which  prevailed. 

The  six  months'  reign  of  Zeehariah.     II  Kings  15 :  8-12. 

Shallum's  conspiracy  and  briefer  reign.     15 :  10,  13-15. 

Menahem's  submission  to  Tiglath-pileser.     15  :  14,  16-22. 

Pekahiah's  brief  reign.     15  :  23-26. 

Pekah's  loss  of  territory  to  Tiglath-pileser.     15 :  25,  27-31. 

Hoshea's  revolt  and  appeal  to  Egypt;  the  siege  and  capture  of  Sa- 
maria.    17  :  1-6;  18  :  9-12. 

An  editorial  review  of  the  history  of  northern  Israel.     17 :  7-23. 

How  the  imperial  policy  of  deportation  altered  the  religious  char- 
acter of  the  population.     17:  6,  24-41. 

Of  the  six  sovereigns  of  Israel  after  Jeroboam  II 
four  were  murdered,  one  died  in  prison,  one  only  died 
a  natural  death.  Menahem,  Pekah,  and  Hoshea  de- 
serve brief  mention.  Both  Menahem  and  Pekah  had 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  Assyrian  attack.  In  one  case  the 
kingdom  was  drained  of  money;  in  the  other  much  ter- 


CENTURY  OF  ASSYRIAN  AGGRESSION    73 

ritory  was  lost.  In  732,  two  years  after  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  Gahlee  and  east-Jordan  country,  Tiglath- 
pileser  crushed  Damascus  and  absorbed  it.  This  left 
only  central  Palestine,  Samaria  proper,  under  the  rule 
of  Pekah,  with  the  accessible  plain  of  Esdraelon  his 
northern  boundary.  Pekah  was  slain  by  Hoshea,  who, 
under  the  patronage  of  Assyria,  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne  of  Israel.  But  we  may  well  assume  that  Ho- 
shea's  attempt  to  secure  the  aid  of  Egypt  was  a  coun- 
sel of  utter  despair.  His  action  gave  Shalmaneser  V, 
who  succeeded  Tiglath-pileser,  a  good  excuse  for  an- 
nexing Israel.  The  strong  city  of  Samaria  was  not  to 
be  captured  with  the  weapons  of  that  day,  but  starva- 
tion compelled  its  final  capitulation  722  B.C.  The 
leading  citizens  were  deported;  their  places  were  filled 
by  the  new  Assyrian  sovereign,  Sargon,  with  subjects 
from  other  lands;  an  Assyrian  governor  was  placed  over 
the  new  province  or  district  of  the  empire.  The  north- 
ern Israehtish  kingdom  was  no  more. 

4.    The  Historical  Place  of  the  Northern  Kingdom. 

The  Northern  kingdom  existed  for  a  little  over  two 
hundred  years.  It  started  with  many  advantages. 
Its  policy  was  unfettered  by  precedent;  it  had  a  fertile 
country,  abundant  population,  and  relatively  ample  re- 
sources. During  the  two  centuries,  however,  it  suf- 
fered eight  changes  of  dynasty.  No  steady  process  of 
development  was  feasible.  Israel's  brilliant  genius 
manifested  itself  in  flashes  rather  than  through  a  steady 
flame.  The  losses  overbalanced  the  gains.  Yet  in  its 
free,  nationalistic  atmosphere  the  prophet  seemed  to 
flourish.  It  could  boast  of  many  noble  men  and 
women.  The  "great  lady"  of  Shunem  was  no  doubt 
a  type  of  its  gracious  and  fair  women.  Its  leadership, 
while  erratic,  was  real.     Israel  set  the  pace  in  many 


74  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

ways,  literary,  economic,  social,  and  religious,  for 
Judah.  This  was  fortunate,  since  Judah,  while  less 
originative,  was  better  fitted  to  preserve  and  protect 
whatever  progress  was  gained.  The  downfall  of  Israel 
did  not  cause  a  loss  of  the  good  things  for  which  she 
had  stood. 

5.    The  Reign  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz  over  Judah. 

Jotham  is  credited  in  II  Kings  15 :  33  with  a  reign 
of  sixteen  years,  but  no  such  period  is  available  be- 
tween the  death  of  Uzziah  and  the  early  years  of  Ahaz. 
We  know,  however,  that  Uzziah  was  afflicted  with 
leprosy,  perhaps  for  many  years.  During  this  period 
Jotham  acted  as  regent.  If  these  years  were  credited 
to  him  as  regnal  years,  then  his  own  separate  reign  was 
rather  brief.  At  all  events  Ahaz  was  on  the  throne  by 
735  B.  C.  During  his  reign  one  fatal  step  was  taken 
over  the  protest  of  Isaiah. 

The  reign  of  Jotham  over  Judah.     11  "Kings  15:5,  32-38;  II 

Chronicles  27. 
The  religious  tendencies  of  Ahaz.     16 : 1-4;  II  Chronicles  2S :  1-4. 
The  alliance  of  Rezon  and  Pekah  against  him.     II  Kings  16:5; 

Isaiah  7  : 1-2;  U  Chronicles  28  :  5-15. 
Isaiah's  advice  to  have  faith  in  Jehovah's  care.     Isaiah  7 :  3-9. 
Ahaz's    submission    to    Tiglath-pileser.     II    Kings     16 : 7-9;    II 

Chronicles  28:16.  20,  21. 
His    relations    with    surrounding    peoples.     II    Kings    16 : 6;    II 

Chronicles  28 :  17-19. 
His  imitation  of  Assyrian  religious  customs.    U  Kings  16 :  10-20. 

Very  little  can  be  said  about  Jotham's  reign  apart 
from  that  of  Uzziah.  He  doubtless  was  responsible 
for  much  of  its  halo  of  success.  According  to  the 
Chronicler  he,  like  his  father,  was  a  successful  and  pru- 
dent warrior,  amassing  wealth  through  tribute. 

When  Ahaz  came  to  the  throne  of  Judah,  Pekah  had 
seized  Israel's  crown.     The  next  three  years  were  fate- 


CENTURY  OF  ASSYRIAN  AGGRESSION    75 

ful.  Rezon  of  Damascus  and  Pekah  sought  to  organize 
an  alliance  of  the  smaller  states  to  resist  the  antici- 
pated demands  of  Tiglath-pileser  IV.  Into  this  alli- 
ance Ahaz  refused  to  go.  Whether  he  acted  from  states- 
manlike or  cowardly  motives  is  not  readily  answered. 
Rezon  and  Pekah  determined  to  compel  him  to  join 
them  and  moved  against  him.  Isaiah  tried  hard  to 
induce  Ahaz  to  ignore  them  and  to  put  his  faith  in 
Jehovah.  Ahaz  preferred  to  curry  favor  with  Tiglath- 
pileser,  and  submitted  to  him,  paying  a  generous  tribute. 
He  thus  saved  his  people  from  immediate  and  future 
invasion,  but  paid  a  heavy  price.  By  his  act  Judah 
became  a  tributary  to  Assyria. 

Ahaz  found  much  to  admire  among  the  Assyrians. 
He  had  a  new  great  altar  made  after  the  pattern  of  one 
he  saw  at  Damascus,  and  put  it  into  constant  use  at 
the  temple,  relegating  that  of  Solomon's  to  subordinate 
use.  Probably  his  attitude  opened  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  the  Assyrian  religious  practices  which 
prevailed  later  (II  Kings  23 :  11,  12). 

To  pass  judgment  on  Ahaz  is  not  easy.  Some  regard 
him  as  a  weakling,  buying  protection  at  the  cost  of 
honor.  Possibly  his  policy  was  one  of  deliberately 
cynical  opportunism,  successful  in  that  it  saved  his 
state  from  the  disasters  which  wrecked  so  many  others, 
yet  unapproved  by  such  brave  and  sagacious  leaders  as 
Isaiah. 

6.    The  Character  and  Policy  of  Hezekiah. 

In  715  Hezekiah  succeeded  to  the  throne,  a  young 
but  very  promising  man.  He  was  greatly  influenced 
by  Isaiah.  During  his  reign  a  real  reformation  took 
place,  whichre-established  firmly  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

The  reformation  of  Hezekiah  and  his  warfare  with  the  Philistines. 
II  Kmgs  18 : 1-8;  II  Chronicles  29-31. 


76  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

How  Isaiah  blocked  one  revolt  against  Sargon.     Isaiah  20. 
The  severe  illness  of  the  king  and  the  visit  of  Merodach-baladau's 
envoy.     II  Kings  20 : 1-19. 

Hezekiah  had  evidently  the  quahtles  of  leadership. 
He  was  the  sovereign  of  greatest  importance  and  re- 
sourcefulness in  Palestine.  Other  peoples  rallied  around 
him.  Yet  no  small  element  in  his  stability  and  power 
was  the  support  and  advice  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  in 
whose  wisdom  both  king  and  people  had  great  con- 
fidence. When  Egypt's  promises  of  support  led  Ashdod 
to  revolt,  Isaiah  was  able  to  deter  his  own  people  from 
following  its  example.  That  Hezekiah  was  not  ex- 
empt from  the  vanity  which  is  natural  to  kings  was 
shown  by  his  dealings  with  the  messengers  of  Merodach- 
baladan,  king  of  Babylonia,  which  Isaiah  rebuked  so 
plainly  and  severely.  Yet,  by  and  large,  he  was  a 
noble  and  righteous  sovereign. 

7.  The  Great  Crisis  During  Sennacherib's  Invasion 
of  Palestine. 
Sargon  of  Assyria  died  in  705  B.  C.  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Sennacherib,  a  man  of  blood  and  iron.  His 
subject  peoples  very  generally  revolted.  Those  in 
Palestine  were  again  stirred  by  Egypt  into  a  concerted 
revolt  which  no  satire  of  Isaiah's  about  "Madame 
Brag  and  Sit-Still"  (Isaiah  30  :  7)  could  prevent  Judah 
from  joining.  He  pleaded  in  vain  that  they  rely  upon 
Jehovah's  aid.  A  very  strong  pro-Egyptian  party  was 
formed,  headed,  apparently,  by  Shebna  the  prime 
minister.  Isaiah  was  strong  enough  to  secure  his  dis- 
missal from  his  exalted  post  and  to  promote  a  change 
of  royal  policy.  During  the  exciting  months  that  fol- 
lowed Isaiah  was  the  trusted  adviser  of  Hezekiah. 

Sennacherib's  first  approach:  Hezekiah's  submission.     II  Kings 
18 :  13-16;  II  Chronicles  32  :  1-8. 


CENTURY  OF  ASSYRIAN  AGGRESSION    77 

Isaiah's  opposition  to  an  alliance  against  Sennacherib.     Isaiah 

18  : 1-19  :  17;  28-32.1 
Sennacherib's  later  attempts  to  force  a  surrender  of  Jerusalem. 

II  Kings  18:  17-19:  34;  Isaiah  36;  37;  II  Chronicles  32:  9-23, 

32,  33. 
His  sudden  departure  to  Assyria.    II  Kings  19 :  35-37. 


In  701  Sennacherib  was  ready  to  attend  to  his  sub- 
jects  in  Palestine.  He  advanced  from  Assyria  swiftly 
with  a  huge  force.  Phoenicia,  Philistia,  and  Egypt  in 
turn  were  defeated.  He  then  turned  to  Judah,  laying 
it  waste  and  besieging  Hezekiah  in  Jerusalem.  Real- 
izing the  hopelessness  of  the  situation  Hezekiah  paid  a 
heavy  tribute  for  raising  the  siege.  Later,  Sennacherib 
demanded  the  absolute  surrender  of  the  city,  a  gross 
breach  of  faith  on  his  part,  as  well  as  a  challenge  to  the 
popular  reliance  on  Jehovah.  But  Isaiah  did  not  quail. 
At  this  time  of  crisis  he  was  calm,  resolute,  and  sure. 
The  issue  was  Jehovah's;  Isaiah  dared  to  declare  that 
He  would  vindicate  His  character  and  preserve  His  own 
city.  Evidently  Sennacherib  tried  twice  to  capture 
Jerusalem.  The  latter  attempt  may  have  been  some 
years  later.  But  the  city  never  had  to  surrender. 
Isaiah's  contention  that  it  was  Jehovah's  inviolable 
sanctuary  seemed  publicly  justified.  The  deliverance 
made  a  lasting  impression  on  the  people  of  Judah. 

The  closing  years  of  Hezekiah's  reign  must  have 
been  happy  years,  fruitful  in  much  that  makes  a  people 
great.  But  Assyria  had  shown  her  overwhelming  power. 
Judah  was  now  a  vassal  state,  paying  regular  tribute. 
What  this  would  mean  for  national  hopes  had  yet  to 
be  determined.  Such  a  current  prophecy  as  that  of 
Isaiah  2 :  2-4  and  Micah  4 : 1-5  seems  to  indicate  a 
calm  confidence  in  a  real  future. 

1  For  a  careful  analysis  of  Isaiah's  prophetic  utterances,  see  the  second  volume  in 
this  series,  Old  Testament  Propliecy,  p.  23jf. 


78  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

8.  Manasseh's  Long  Reign  over  Judah  (686-641 
B.  C). 

With  the  accession  of  Manasseh,  the  young  son  of 
Hezekiah,  to  the  throne  a  reaction  took  place.  The 
innate  heathenism  of  Jerusalem  (Ezekiel  16  :  3),  long  re- 
pressed but  never  wholly  extirpated,  asserted  itself  un- 
der the  patronage  of  the  court  with  irresistible  force,  and 
became  highly  popular.  The  Assyrian  customs  intro- 
duced under  Ahaz  became  the  fashion.  The  prophetic 
adherents,  even  w^th  such  leadership  as  Isaiah's,  were 
soon  in  real  peril.  Its  members  had  to  hide  away.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition  Isaiah  was  murdered.  The  result 
of  this  sudden  change  from  pubhc  leadership  to  pop- 
ular hatred  forced  a  great  but  not  unsalutary  change  of 
prophetic  methods. 

Early  in  Manasseh's  reign  Sennacherib  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Esarhaddon,  an  energetic,  reasonable  ruler 
(680-668),  who  was  followed,  in  turn,  by  the  greatest 
Assyrian  sovereign  of  all,  Ashurbanipal,  still  at  the 
height  of  his  power  when  Manasseh  died. 

The    religious    innovations    of    Manasseh.     II    Kings    21 : 1-9; 

II  Chronicles  33 : 1-9. 
The  prophetic  view  of  his  reign.     II  Kings  21 :  10-15. 
His  discipline.     II  Chronicles  33 :  10-13. 
His  royal  career.     II  Kings  21 :  16-18;  II  Chronicles  33 :  14-20. 

The  reign  of  Manasseh,  viewed  from  any  other  angle 
than  that  of  religion,  was  one  which  contributed  its 
share  of  advance.  Judah  was  avowedly  a  tributary 
to  Assyria,  but  the  relationship  assured  peace  and  the 
restoration  of  prosperity  through  trade  within  the  wide- 
ranging  empire  which,  under  Esarhaddon,  included 
Egypt.  Moreover,  the  influence  of  a  friendly  Assyria 
was  distinctly  cultural.  It  is  generally  assumed  that 
the  Babylonian  calendar  was  adopted  by  the  Hebrews 
at  this  time.     Rehgiously  the  movement  was  more  for 


CENTURY  OF  ASSYRIAN  AGGRESSION    79 

absolute  freedom  than  against  the  recognition  of  Je- 
hovah. It  was  the  exclusiveness  of  the  prophets  which 
caused  such  hostiUty  to  them. 

The  withdrawal  of  the  prophets  from  pubHc  appear- 
ances gave  a  great  impetus  to  Hterary  advance.  Writ- 
ing was  the  only  efficient  method  of  appeal  open  to 
them.  The  actual  productiveness  in  literature  of  the 
half  century  we  may  only  conjecture.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  much  was  done  by  way  of  collecting  and  edit- 
ing the  sermons  of  the  four  prophets  of  the  earlier  half 
of  the  century,  and  by  way  of  revising  and  extending 
the  covenant  law  to  fit  the  new  prophetic  ideals.  Prov- 
erbs 25  : 1  argues  for  still  other  sorts  of  literary  ac- 
tivity. 

9.    The  Century  as  a  Whole. 

The  one  hundred  years  of  Hebrew  history  which  fol- 
lowed the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  made  signifi- 
cant changes  in  Hebrew  life.  The  Northern  kingdom 
came  to  an  end,  not  ingloriously,  yet  decisively.  What 
it  had  embodied  in  custom  or  prophetic  appeals  lived 
on.  Judah  became  a  vassal  nation,  yet  succeeded  in 
maintaining  a  reasonable  freedom.  The  nation  suf- 
fered severely  from  war,  yet  gradually  recovered  a 
greater  prosperity  than  before.  For  a  half  century  it 
put  prophetic  ideals  of  religion  under  the  ban,  but 
thereby  stimulated  a  literary  activity  which  gave  a  new 
outlet  to  prophetic  teaching  and  a  new  breadth  to 
its  programme  of  reform. 


VII 

JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY :  A  PERIOD 
OF  GRADUAL  POLITICAL  DECLINE 

II  Kings  21:19-25:21;  II  Chronicles  34-36 
(639-586  B.  C.) 

JuDAH  Assyria 

Josiah,  639-608  Ashurbanipal,  668-625 

Jehoahaz,  608  Ashur-etil-ili        1   f\QK-RnR 

Jehoiakim,  608-597  Sin-shar-ishkun  /  ^*^  ""^ 

Jehoiachin,  597  Capture  of  Nineveh,  606 
Zedekiah,  597-586  Chaldea 

Nabopolassar,  625-604 
Nebuchadrezzar,  604-562 

The  reign  of  Anion,  the  son  of  Manasseh,  was  un- 
eventful and  brief.  A  palace  conspiracy  brought  it  to 
a  sudden  close.  A  popular  movement,  which  reflected 
a  long-impending  desire  for  a  change  in  public  policy, 
placed  Amon's  infant  son,  Josiah  (639-608  B.  C),  on 
the  throne  of  Judah.  The  little  king  v/as  under  the 
care  of  a  group  of  wise  and  loyal  guardians,  whose  in- 
fluence gave  promise  of  a  speedy  restoration  of  the  tra- 
ditional strength  of  the  kingdom.  Prophetic  ideals 
once  more  gained  ascendancy  in  shaping  the  currents 
of  national  life,  outstanding  evils  were  abated,  and  an 
era  of  prosperity  ensued.  That  these  results  were  not 
permanent  was  due  to  a  fateful  combination  of  causes 
which  will  appear  in  the  narrative.  In  spite  of  them 
Josiah's  reign  left  its  own  ineffaceable  and  salutary 
stamp  upon  the  national  life. 

80 


JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY     81 

The  last  quarter  century  before  the  Exile  was  a 
period  of  steady  national  decline,  yet  one  of  glorious 
spiritual  achievement.  Such  a  king  as  Jehoiakim  was 
a  curse  to  Judah,  but  such  minds  as  those  of  Jeremiah, 
Habakkuk,  and  Ezekiel  were  its  salvation.  Jeremiah 
in  particular,  because  of  his  very  loneliness  and  bitter- 
ness of  life,  made  Di\T[ne  discoveries  which  enriched  the 
world  for  all  time.^  Ezekiel,  made  an  exile,  discovered 
that  he  could  move  the  hearts  of  his  fellow  captives  to 
sanity  and  serenity  of  soul. 

I.    The  Young  King  and  His  Advisers  (639-621  B.  C). 

Josiah  was  eight  years  old  when  he  ascended  the 
throne.  According  to  the  Chronicler,  he  repeatedly 
manifested  a  marked  interest  in  religious  reforms  before 
he  attained  his  twentieth  year,  but  the  record  of  Kings 
and  the  prophetic  data  converge  upon  the  years  fol- 
lowing 626  as  being  the  truly  important  years  of  his 
rule.  So  far  as  the  evidence  goes,  Josiah  was  a  faith- 
ful tributary  of  the  great  Assyrian  sovereign,  Ashur- 
banipal  (668-625  B.  C),  whose  closing  years  bore 
lightly  upon  the  subject  peoples  of  his  vast  empire, 
and  gave  them  increasing  internal  freedom. 

The  great  Assyrian  empire  was,  in  fact,  nearing  its 
end.  The  policy  of  expatriation  had  been  carried  so 
far  that  there  was  no  longer  a  reliable,  homogeneous, 
absolutely  loyal  central  state  available  for  terrorizing 
the  world.  The  unity  of  the  empire  depended  upon 
the  personality  of  its  sovereign,  who  had  become  old 
and  pleasure-loving.  Its  weakness  was  demonstrated 
by  the  inroads  of  the  fierce  Scythians  who  came  pour- 
ing out  of  the  north  to  ravage  the  empire.  These 
hordes  on  horseback  could  not  attack  with  any  success 
walled  cities,  but  they  ravaged  at  will  the  lands  through 

1  See  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  36,  43. 


82  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

which  they  wandered.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  they 
followed  the  coast  as  far  as  the  border  of  Egypt,  but 
were  turned  away  by  Psamtik  I.  Jerusalem  and  Judah 
they  seem  to  have  left  untouched,  but  the  menace  of 
their  presence  seems  reflected  in  Zephaniah  and  in 
Jeremiah  2-6. 

The  brief  reign  of  Amon  over  Judah.     II  Kings  21 :  19-26;  II 

Chronicles  33 :  21-25. 
Josiah's  first  eighteen  years  upon  the  throne.     II  Kings  22 : 1,  2; 

II  Chronicles  34  : 1-7. 
Josiah's  reliable  advisers.     II  Kings  22:3,  4,  12,  14;  Zephaniah 

1:1;  Jeremiah  1 :  2. 

Two  prophets  shared  definitely  in  the  shaping  of  the 
royal  purpose  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  public 
mind  during  this  period,  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah, 
each  coming  to  public  notice  about  62Q  B.  C.  One 
had  royal  blood  in  his  veins;  the  other  came  from  an 
old,  influential  priestly  stock.  Zephaniah's  austere 
message  of  immediate  and  genuine  repentance  on  pain 
of  Jehovah's  sweeping  judgment  was  balanced  and  sup- 
ported by  Jeremiah's  tender  yet  vigorous  appeals  to 
Judah  to  be  loyal  to  the  nobler  ideals  of  the  past  (Jere- 
miah 2-6).  Together  they  quickened  the  conscience 
of  the  nation  regarding  its  religious  obligations.^ 

2.  Josiah's  Project  of  Repairing  the  Temple  and  Its 
Startling  Outcome  (621  B.  C). 
Notwithstanding  the  attitude  of  the  young  king  and 
the  vigorous  appeals  of  these  prophets,  supported 
surely  by  the  prophetic  party  among  the  people  and 
by  the  officers  of  the  king's  cabinet,  the  work  of  reform 
might  have  been  more  difficult,  if  the  death  of  Ashur- 
banipal  and  the  accession  of  a  feeble  successor  had  not 

» See  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  SI,  32. 


JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY     83 

given  Josiah  an  unusual  degree  of  freedom  of  action. 
Of  this  he  took  full  advantage. 

Josiah's  measures  for  the  repair  of  the  temple.     II  Kings  22 :  3-7; 

II  Chronicles  34  :  8-13. 
The  discovery  of  the  "book  of  the  law."     II  Kings  22:  8-11;  II 

Chronicles  34 :  14-19. 
Its  confirmation  as  authoritative  by  Huldah,  the  prophetess.     II 

Kings  22 :  12-20;  II  Chronicles  34 :  20-28. 
Its  public  reading  followed  by  a  popular  acceptance  of  its  provisions. 

II  Kings  23 :  1-3;  II  Chronicles  34 :  29-32. 

Josiah's  programme  of  reform  began  at  the  temple. 
During  the  many  decades  of  neglect  it  had  come  to  be 
in  sore  need  of  repair.  II  Kings  22 :  4,  7  indicates  the 
fine  spirit  in  which  the  people  entered  upon  the  sacred 
task.  It  was  progressing  happily  when  Hilkiah,  the 
high  priest,  made  a  great  discovery.  He  found  a  book, 
a  law  code,  which  impressed  him  and  Shaphan  so  greatly 
that  they  took  it  directly  to  the  young  king.  It  was 
evidently  a  surprise  to  the  king  and  to  his  advisory 
circle.  The  prophetess,  Huldah,  was  consulted  re- 
garding its  genuineness.  Receiving  her  sanction  the 
young  king  took  immediate  steps  to  have  the  code 
publicly  read.  It  made  a  profound  impression  upon 
all  and  at  once  received  general  acceptance  as  a  code 
which  should  govern  the  life  of  Judah. 

3.  The  "  Book  of  the  Law  "  and  the  Movement  for 
Reform. 
This  code  of  law  which  affected  courtiers,  king,  and 
people  so  strikingly,  must  have  been  short  enough  to 
be  read  aloud  easily,  and  must  have  contained  exhor- 
tations, warnings,  and  promises  as  well  as  legal  ma- 
terial. Without  doubt  it  was  substantially  what  we 
know  to-day  as  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  at  least  the 
legal  portion  of  it,  chapters  12-28.      The  code  em- 


84  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

bodied  in  this  book  exactly  corresponds  to  the  re- 
forms which  were  carried  out.  Why  it  had  been  laid 
away,  and  why  King  Josiah's  circle  was  unacquainted 
with  it  are  questions  which  can  only  be  answered  by 
conjecture.  The  most  probable  view  of  its  origin  is 
that  the  Deuteronomic  code  was  the  result  of  the  ap- 
plication of  the  prophetic  ideals  of  Amos,  Hosea, 
Isaiah,  and  Micah  to  the  religious  and  social  regula- 
tions obtaining  in  the  eighth  century.  It  was  a  re- 
formulation of  the  established  Mosaic  law  to  make  it 
express  the  new  conceptions  of  Jehovah,  of  national 
life,  and  of  individual  character  and  responsibility. 
These  ideas  make  the  greater  part  of  the  difference  be- 
tween it  and  the  covenant  code,  Exodus  20  :  23-23  :  19, 
which,  as  already  pointed  out  (p.  27),  was  probably  the 
social  code  of  the  earlier  kingdoms.  The  Deuteronomic 
code  made  one  marked  change  in  the  religious  proce- 
dure of  the  people.  It  centralized  all  sacrificial  wor- 
ship at  Jerusalem.  It  served  as  the  accepted  basis  of 
social  and  religious  life  for  the  next  two  hundred  years. 

Josiah's  abolition  of  the  altars  and  symbols  of  Canaanite  or  As- 
syrian worship  in  Jerusalem,     II  Kings  23  :  4-14;  II  Chr.  34  :  33. 

His  abolition  of  the  altars  of  sacrifice  and  of  unworthy  practices 
throughout  the  land.     II  Kings  23 :  15-20,  24. 

The  great  passover  celebration.  II  Kings  23 :  21-22;  II  Chronicles 
35:1-11. 

The  compiler's  comment.     II  Kings  23 :  25-27. 

The  reform  that  followed  the  adoption  of  the  new 
law  was  sweeping  indeed.  A  wave  of  moral  enthu- 
siasm swept  over  the  land.  The  temple  and  capital 
city  with  their  surroundings  were  cleansed  of  the  altars 
and  symbols  of  the  forms  of  worship  that  had  been  en- 
couraged by  Manasseh.  All  other  sanctuaries  than 
Jerusalem  were  defiled,  their  priests  being  slain  or 
brought  to  Jerusalem  for  service.     The  reform  was  as 


JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY     85 

thorough-going  as  such  a  reform  can  ever  be.  It  over- 
rode all  opposition.  Not  only  King  Josiah  and  his 
officers,  but  such  leaders  as  Jeremiah  (11 : 1-8),  sup- 
ported the  movement. 

4.    The  Remainder  of  Josiah's  Reign  (621-608  B.  C). 

The  next  twelve  years  was  a  period  of  great  outward 
prosperity.  Josiah  was  a  patriotic,  noble-minded 
ruler.  His  people  increased  in  numbers  and  resources. 
Very  probably  Josiah  added  to  his  dominion  a  part  of 
the  old  Northern  kingdom.  Could  he  have  had  a 
longer  reign  or  have  had  a  successor  like  himself,  the 
little  kingdom  might  have  had  a  fresh  lease  of  life. 

But  world  conditions  were  changing  rapidly.  The 
Assyrian  empire  which  had  endured  for  over  a  thou- 
sand years  and  had  led  its  world  for  half  that  time, 
now,  sadly  weakened,  was  facing  its  end.  Its  last  king 
was  no  weakling,  but  he  ascended  the  throne  too  late 
to  save  it.  The  new  empire  of  Chaldea  and  the  con- 
federation of  the  Medes  joined  forces  against  Assyria 
and  doomed  it  to  extinction.  Several  years  before 
Nineveh  was  actually  captured  the  prophet  Nahum 
foretold  its  downfall.^  Pharaoh  Necho  II,  of  Egypt, 
an  able,  ambitious,  and  aggressive  ruler,  saw  his  op- 
portunity to  regain  some  of  Egypt's  long-lost  domain, 
and  to  become  a  great  Asiatic  power.  In  609  he 
marched  with  a  great  army  toward  the  Euphrates. 
Gaza  and  Ashkelon  were  readily  taken;  other  cities 
offered  no  resistance.  His  way  seemed  clear  and  easy 
until  Josiah  of  Judah  interposed. 

The  vain  attempt  of  Josiah  to  block  Necho's  advance.     II  Kings 

23 :  28-30;  II  Chronicles  35  :  20-24. 
The  universal   lamentation   over  Josiah's  death.     II  Chronicles 

35 :  24,  25. 

1  See  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  p.  35. 


86  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  popular  choice  of  Jehoahaz  (Shallum)  as  king.    II  Kings  23  :  30. 
Necho's  reversal  of  this  choice  and  selection  of  Jehoiakim.     II 
Kings  23 :  33.  34;  II  Chronicles  36 : 1-4. 

We  well  may  wonder  at  Josiah's  boldness.  He  paid 
a  great  price  for  the  freedom  he  would  continue  to  en- 
joy. His  little  army  met  that  of  Necho  at  Megiddo 
and  was  decisively  routed,  the  king  losing  his  life. 
Thus  came  to  a  sad  and  sudden  close  a  life  of  promise, 
and  Judah  became  subject  to  Egypt. 

By  a  species  of  popular  vote  Jehoahaz,  a  younger 
son  of  Josiah,  was  made  king  of  Judah.  This  choice 
was  later  overruled  by  Necho,  who  summoned  the 
newly  chosen  king  to  Riblah,  in  Syria,  where  a  perma- 
nent camp  had  been  pitched.  There  Jehoahaz  was 
treated  with  every  mark  of  indignity,  his  older  brother 
Eliakim  was  placed  on  the  throne  under  the  royal  name 
of  Jehoiakim,  and  Judah  was  heavily  fined.  Evi- 
dently Jehoahaz  and  those  who  chose  him  were  re- 
garded as  hostile  to  Egypt.  He  was  taken  to  Egypt 
as  a  prisoner  and  soon  died,  as  Jeremiah  had  foreseen 
(Jeremiah  22:10-12). 

5.    The  Early  Reign  of  Jehoiakim  (608-601  B.  C). 

The  first  years  of  Jehoiakim's  reign  were  full  of  stir- 
ring world  events.  The  actual  capture  of  Nineveh 
by  the  Medes  and  its  destruction  took  place  in  606 
B.  C.  In  the  partition  of  the  Assyrian  empire  the 
Chaldeans  took  the  territory  lying  west  of  the  Tigris. 
The  first  great  issue  to  be  decided  by  Nabopolassar, 
their  king,  was  the  question  of  supremacy  on  the  coast. 
He  sent  his  son,  Nebuchadrezzar,  with  an  army  to  meet 
Necho's  vast  host  at  Carchemish,  where  he  inflicted  a 
crushing  blow  to  Egyptian  ambition.  The  Egyptian 
army  fled  in  confusion  to  Egypt,  followed  by  the  vic- 
torious prince.     The  sudden  news  of  his  father's  death 


JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY     87 

compelled  Nebuchadrezzar  to  abandon  the  pursuit  and 
to  hasten  to  Babylon,  but  not  before  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine had  submitted  to  Chaldean  rule. 

Jehoiakim's  first  three  regnal  years.     II  Kings  24 : 1. 

Jeremiah's  reference  to  the  overthrow  of  Necho.     Jeremiah  46: 

2-12. 
Habakkuk's  study  of  the  place  of  the  Chaldean  in  God's  universe. 

Habakkuk  1,  2. 

For  the  first  seven  years  of  his  reign  Jehoiakim  was 
loyal,  first  to  his  Egyptian  overlord,  then  to  Nebu- 
chadrezzar. At  least  he  paid  tribute.  Each  overlord 
had  a  heavy  hand.  The  prophet  Habakkuk  reflected 
the  mind  of  many  a  righteous  soul  when  he  asked  how 
Jehoiakim  could  permit  so  inhuman  and  greedy  a  na- 
tion as  the  Chaldean  to  control  the  destinies  of  his 
own  people?  Jeremiah  explained  the  Chaldean  over- 
lordship  as  Jehovah's  challenge  to  his  unrepentant 
people  (Jeremiah  25  : 1-14).  These  seven  years  had 
been  sad  ones  for  the  prophet.  Jehoiakim  hated  him : 
all  classes  therefore  ostracized  him.  He  found  his  way 
and  his  work  blocked.  These  experiences  drove  him, 
however,  continually  closer  to  God  and  gave  him 
fresh  prophetic  visions.^  He  was  the  great  man  of  his 
age. 

There  developed  in  Judah  a  party  of  patriots  who 
were  eager  to  renounce  allegiance  to  Nebuchadrezzar. 
So  far  as  the  Biblical  evidence  goes,  the  only  strong 
voice  raised  in  opposition  to  this  foolish  proposal  was 
that  of  Jeremiah.  But  his  opposition  only  helped  the 
cause  of  the  enthusiasts,  who  were  probably  given 
secret  encouragement  from  Egypt.  In  601  the  annual 
tribute  was  refused. 

'  For  the  instructive  details  of  this  interesting  and  creative  prophetic  period,  aa 
revealed  in  the  writings  of  Jeremiah,  see  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  35-47. 


88  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

6.  The  First  Capture  of  Jerusalem  and  First  Cap- 
tivity (601-597  B.  C). 
Nebuchadrezzar  did  not  immediately  invade  Judah, 
either  because  he  belittled  the  revolt  or  because  he  was 
occupied  at  home  with  momentous  matters.  He  or- 
dered such  Chaldean  soldiery  as  were  available,  to- 
gether with  auxiliaries  from  Syria,  Moab,  and  Ammon, 
to  make  forages  in  Judah.  Such  guerilla  warfare, 
however,  had  little  effect.  In  597  the  great  king  was 
ready  to  act. 

The  guerilla  warfare  against  Jehoiakim.     II  Kings  24  :  2. 
The  editor's  explanation  of  the  situation.     24  :  3,  4  (compare  Jere- 
miah 22 :  13-19;  12  :  7-17;  13 :  15-27). 
The  sudden  death  of  Jehoiakim.     II  Engs  24 :  5,  6.^ 
The  brief  reign  of  his  son,  Jehoiachin.     24  :  8,  9. 
The  surrender  of  Jerusalem  and  first  captivity.     24  :  10-16. 

Nebuchadrezzar  with  his  army  quickly  invested  the 
city.  At  or  just  before  this  crisis  Jehoiakim  died,  leav- 
ing the  throne  to  his  son  Jehoiachin,  who  occupied  it 
nominally  three  months.  There  was  no  hope  of  succor. 
Hence  the  young  king  with  his  mother  and  court  sur- 
rendered unconditionally,  before  any  assault  of  the 
city  took  place. 

Nebuchadrezzar  dealt  with  the  people  of  Judah  in  a 
way  which  he  probably  regarded  as  merciful.  He  car- 
ried away  to  Babylon  the  royal  family,  the  court,  the 
important  leaders,  seven  thousand  fighting  men,  and  a 
thousand  handicraftsmen.  These  were  the  choicest 
section  of  the  people,  the  "good  figs"  (Jeremiah  24; 
2-5),  the  natural  leaders.  All  these  with  their  families 
were  settled  in  Babylonia  on  the  banks  of  the  Chebar, 
one  of  the  huge,  river-like  canals,  where  they  were  per- 
mitted to  live  their  own  community  life.  The  con- 
queror took  away  some  temple  treasures   (II  Kings 

'  The  statement  of  II  Chronicles  36 :  6  lacks  confirmation. 


JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY      89 

24:13;  Jeremiah  27:19),  yet  left  the  land  and  city 
essentially  untouched. 

7.    Zedekiah's  Helpless  Reign  (597-586  B.  C). 

Nebuchadrezzar  placed  on  the  throne  of  Judah  a 
third  son  of  Josiah,  Mattaniah,  giving  him  the  regnal 
name  of  Zedekiah.  The  new  king  was  quite  young. 
His  intentions  may  have  been  good,  but  he  could  not 
cope  with  the  situation.  He  respected  Jeremiah,  but 
could  not  protect  him.  He  was  surrounded  by  inex- 
perienced, headstrong  advisers  who  disregarded  past 
experience  in  a  passionate,  blind  patriotism,  which 
trusted,  in  spite  of  Jeremiah's  bold  declarations,  that 
Jehovah  would  not  permit  the  Chaldean  king  to  de- 
stroy Jerusalem,  His  abode. 

The  exact  sequence  of  events  is  uncertain,  yet  appar- 
ently the  first  haK  and  more  of  Zedekiah's  reign  was 
passed  without  outward  disloyalty.  Jeremiah  was  ac- 
tive in  counselling  the  captives  in  Babylonia  to  settle 
down  in  expectation  of  a  long  stay  (Jeremiah  29  :  4-14), 
and  in  denouncing  the  false  prophets  at  home  whose 
counsel  was  so  harmful  (23).  But  a  strong  party  ex- 
isted, both  in  Babylonia  and  in  Judah,  which  beheved 
that  patriotism  meant  anti-Chaldeanism.  It  heard 
Jeremiah  with  impatience.  When  he  declared  his  con- 
viction that  the  yoke  of  Nebuchadrezzar  was  un- 
breakable, and  that  submission  to  him  was  the  only  dic- 
tate of  wisdom  for  any  people  (Jeremiah  27  :  5-11),  the 
prophet  Hananiah  dared  to  break  the  yoke  with  which 
Jeremiah  had  been  symbolizing  his  plea,  declaring 
"Even  so,"  saith  Jehovah,  "will  I  break  the  yoke  of 
Nebuchadrezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  within  two  full  years 
from  off  the  neck  of  all  the  nations"  (28 :  11).  These 
were  strenuous  days.  Jeremiah  might,  however,  have 
won,  since  after  592  B.  C.  he  had  the  vigorous  support 


90  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

of  another  great  prophet,  Ezekiel,  whose  messages  ut- 
tered by  the  Chebar  were  quickly  known  in  Jerusalem. 
But  a  new  factor  entered  into  the  situation.  In  588 
B.  C.  a  new  king,  Hophra,  arose  in  Egypt,  able,  am- 
bitious, and  crafty.  He  lost  no  time  in  promising  to 
assist  the  little  peoples  of  Palestine  to  defy  Nebuchad- 
rezzar. They  promptly  revolted.  No  influence  could 
restrain  Judah  from  entering  this  movement.  Both 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  denounced  the  revolt  as  an  act 
of  treachery  to  Jehovah  Himself,  but  to  no  purpose. 

Zedekiah  made  king  of  Judah.     II  Kings  24 :  17-20. 
How  Jeremiah  tried  to  prevent  rebellion.     Jeremiah  27,  28,  29. 
The  long  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans.     II  Kings  25  :  1-2. 
Their  temporary  withdrawal  to  meet  the  advancing  Egyptians; 

what  befell  Jeremiah.     Jeremiah  34,  37,  38. 
The  capture  of  the  city  and  of  the  king.     II  Kings  25 :  3-6. 
The  sweeping  judgments  inflicted  by  Nebuchadrezzar.     25 :  6-21. 
Gedaliah  made  governor  of  Palestine  and  his  fate.     25 :  22-26. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  a  Chaldean  army  appeared 
before  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  The  city  was  a  real 
fortress  of  great  strength,  capable  of  withstanding  a 
long  siege.  It  could  not  be  taken  by  direct  assault,  so 
the  great  army  invested  it  and  settled  down  to  starve  it 
into  submission.  The  Hebrews  were  grimly  determined 
to  hold  out  to  the  last.  They  had  hopes  of  rehef  from 
Hophra.  That  sovereign  did,  in  fact,  lead  an  army 
into  Palestine.  The  Chaldean  forces  raised  the  siege 
in  order  to  meet  this  force. 

Great  were  the  rejoicings  of  the  people  in  Jerusalem. 
Many  among  the  wealthy  who  had  freed  their  slaves 
at  the  request  of  King  Zedekiah  and  in  token  of  re- 
pentance now  compelled  them  to  render  their  old 
obedience  (Jeremiah  34  :  8-22) .  Only  Jeremiah  was 
unchanged.  He  warned  the  people  that  the  Chaldeans 
had  not  gone  permanently.  He  was  hated  as  a  traitor. 
Attempting  to  leave  the  city  at  this  crisis  on  some  pri- 


JUDAH'S  CLOSING  HALF  CENTURY     91 

vate  business,  he  was  suspected  of  a  desire  to  desert, 
was  beaten,  and  then  thrust  into  prison.  From  this  he 
was  rescued  only  to  be  cast  into  a  waterless  cistern,  lest 
his  continual  advising  of  the  people  to  surrender  should 
weaken  the  defense.  Only  the  friendly  aid  of  a  negro 
eunuch  of  the  palace  preserved  the  prophet's  Hfe 
(Jeremiah  37,  38). 

8.  The  Final  Capture  and  Destruction  of  Jerusalem 

(586  B.  C). 
Having  driven  the  Egyptian  army  back  into  Egypt, 
the  Chaldeans  once  more  invested  Jerusalem  closely. 
Famine  and  probably  pestilence  weakened  the  defense. 
Eventually  a  break  was  made  in  the  walls,  and  the 
eager  army  poured  into  the  doomed  city.  Zedekiah 
fled  away  at  night,  but  was  pursued,  captured  in  the 
plains  of  Jericho,  and  carried  off  to  Riblah,  where 
Nebuchadrezzar  dealt  with  him  ruthlessly.  Mean- 
while Jerusalem  was  plundered,  sacked,  and  laid  in 
ruins.  The  long  resistance  of  its  people  had  so  en- 
raged the  Chaldeans  that  they  deliberately  laid  waste 
the  city  and  its  surroundings.  They  proposed  to  end 
forever  the  defiant  state.  The  peasantry  out  in  the 
country  parts,  such  as  were  left,  were  not  carried  away, 
but  a  second  captivity,  chosen  as  before  from  the  rich- 
est and  most  representative  among  the  inhabitants, 
was  carried  away  to  Babylonia. 

9.  The  Four  Centuries  of  National  Life. 

About  four  hundred  years  had  elapsed  since  the  rise 
of  nationalism  under  David.  Half  of  the  period  was 
required  for  laying  a  proper  foundation  of  experience 
and  development.  The  less  than  two  centuries  from 
the  days  of  Amos  and  Isaiah,  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah, 
had  been  Israel's  golden  age,  when  her  leaders  were 


92  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

awakening  to  the  real  significance  of  the  Divine  lead- 
ership of  the  nation.  Although  the  Hebrew  nation- 
ality seemed  to  have  been  crushed  by  the  brutal 
strength  of  the  Chaldean,  the  real  Hebrew  life  was  un- 
affected. In  fact,  as  we  shall  see,  it  was  set  free  !  The 
Hebrew  people  had  developed  ideals  that  were  now  to 
gain  a  universal  recognition.  They  were  ready  to  en- 
ter upon  a  new  and  vastly  important  phase  of  their 
wonderful  history. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  valuable  results  of  this  new 
life  was  the  impulse  given  to  literary  production.  Not 
only  were  the  early  prophetical  narratives  of  the  be- 
ginnings of  Hebrew  history  (pp.  5,  21,  54,  66)  combined 
with  the  Deuteronomic  code  into  an  enlarged  "Bible," 
but  the  records  of  the  centuries  following  the  Conquest 
were  edited  into  the  present  books  of  Judges,  Samuel, 
and  Kings  (pp.  24,  46,  72),  while  the  current  propheti- 
cal and  other  literature  was  brought  up  to  date. 


VIII 

THE  BABYLONIAN  EXILE 

(586-538  B.  C.) 

Chaldea 
Nebuchadrezzar,  604-562 
Amil-Marduk,  561-560 
Nergal-shar-usur,  559-555 
Labashi-Marduk,  556 
Nabimai'd  (Nabonidus),  556-538 

With  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  transfer 
of  the  most  influential  section  of  the  Hebrew  people  to 
Babylonia,  we  reach  the  fourth  great  turning-point  in 
Hebrew  history.  The  crossing  of  the  Jordan,  the  dis- 
ruption of  David's  kingdom,  and  the  entrance  of  As- 
syria into  world  politics,  each  was  the  occasion  of  a 
radical  change  in  the  life  of  the  Hebrew  people.  Of 
equal  importance  with  the  first-named  was  the  Baby- 
lonian exile.  It  marked  four  sweeping  changes  in  He- 
brew life.  The  people  came  to  be  generally  known  as 
Jews  ("Judeans");  they  exchanged  landowning  and 
agriculture  for  commercial  pursuits;  they  became  a  cos- 
mopohtan  people  who  could  make  their  home  any- 
where; most  of  all  they  dropped  idolatry  and  made  re- 
hgion  a  primary  interest  of  life.  They  felt  that  their 
exile  was  a  grievous  punishment  for  their  sins.  They 
came  in  time  to  see  that  Jehovah  had  enabled  them  to 
make  it  a  wonderful  opportunity. 

During  this  half  century  they  not  only  learned  a 
new  type  of  living  and  acquired  a  culture  hitherto  un- 
familiar, but  they  also  gained  through  their  great  pro- 

93 


94  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

phetic  leaders  both  a  supreme  conception  of  religion 
and  its  significance  and  a  fresh  idea  of  the  value  of  re- 
ligious organization.  From  many  angles  these  fifty 
years  were  all-important  in  Hebrew  development. 
They  brought  to  a  climax  the  vigorous  religious  think- 
ing of  two  centuries,  declaring  that  Jehovah  was  the  one 
God  of  the  universe,  and  defining  religion  in  terms  of 
missionary  obligation. 

1.  The  Exiled  People. 

Jeremiah  had  declared  that  the  exile  would  continue 
for  seventy  years  (Jeremiah  29:10).  Evidently  this 
was  a  round  number,  but  it  was  not  far  from  correct. 
A  full  half  century  passed  before  a  Jew  could  lawfully 
return  to  the  city  of  his  hopes  and  prayers.  During  this 
period  the  captives  lived  such  relatively  free  lives  in 
Babylonia  and  elsewhere  that  they  insensibly  made  the 
new  environment  their  natural  one.  Never  again  did 
the  bulk  of  the  people  live  in  Palestine;  they  became 
internationalized. 

Nebuchadrezzar  had  left  the  weakest  but  probably 
most  numerous  section  of  the  original  people  as  peas- 
antry in  Palestine;  another  strong  group  was  in  Egypt, 
composed  of  those  v/ho  had  fled  thither  from  time  to 
time;  the  portion  in  Babylonia,  possibly  the  least  in 
numbers,  was  by  far  the  most  representative  of  the  best 
Jewish  blood.  It  carried  the  destinies  of  the  people 
with  it. 

2.  EzekiePs  Task  and  How  He  Performed  It. 
When  the  second  group  of  exiled  families  reached 

Babylonia,  both  they  and  those  who  had  preceded  them 
by  a  dozen  years  were  wholly  disheartened.  Despite 
the  warnings  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  they  had  be- 


THE  BABYLONIAN  EXILE  95 

lieved  that  Jehovah  would  protect  His  people,  city,  and 
temple.  But  now  their  dynasty  was  broken,  the  tem- 
ple and  city  in  ruins,  the  priesthood  without  means  of 
worship.  The  very  foundations  of  their  life  seemed  to 
have  given  away.  They  could  only  call  themselves 
"dried  up  bones"  (Ezekiel  37:11).  The  "Lamenta- 
tions "  express  the  depths  of  their  woe.  Had  not  such 
noble  leaders  as  Ezekiel  been  at  hand,  they  could  with 
difficulty  have  renewed  their  hopefulness  and  taken  a 
forward  look. 

Ezekiel  set  himself  to  the  task  of  enabling  his  down- 
hearted people  to  get  a  fresh  grip  on  life,  and  to  settle 
down  to  await  patiently  the  better  days  ahead.  Jere- 
miah had  remained  in  Judah  for  a  similar  purpose,  but 
had  been  carried  away  to  Egypt.  Some  fifteen  years 
of  earnest,  pastoral  service  are  represented  by  Ezekiel 
33-37.  The  prophet  set  forth  the  loving  sympathy  and 
abounding  goodness  of  Jehovah,  His  tenderness  and 
patience  with  His  sinful  people,  and  proclaimed  that 
while  He  had  been  forced  by  His  people's  sinfulness  to 
discipline  them,  the  future  could  yet  be  bright.  He 
could  readily  make  a  new  and  powerful  nation  even  out 
of  dry  bones  (Ezekiel  37:3-6).  Ezekiel's  encouraging 
words  gave  new  hfe  and  hope  to  the  exiled  community. 
But  he  was  also  an  organizer.  In  a  striking  vision  of 
the  future  temple  and  its  services  (40-48)  he  embodied 
a  scheme  which  so  clearly  indicated  how  the  Israel  of 
the  future  could  function  that  it  actually  readjusted 
the  religious  policy  of  the  Jewish  people.  His  genius 
foreshadowed  the  Judaism  that  was  to  be. 

3.    The  New  Life  in  Babylonia. 

The  new  life  in  Babylonia  was  many-sided.  The 
Jews  were  not  greatly  restricted  except  in  their  free- 


96  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

dom  to  return  to  Judah.  They  entered  freely  and  with 
success  into  the  commercial  opportunities  of  their 
new  home.  They  utiHzed  its  educational  advantages. 
They  were  impressed  by  its  learning,  its  strength,  and 
its  resources.  To  what  degree  they  mingled  socially 
with  the  haughty  Chaldeans  is  uncertain.  Appar- 
ently their  most  representative  men,  like  Daniel,  were 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  court.  In  great  measure, 
however,  the  Jews  maintained  their  own  exclusive  so- 
ciety and  carefully  preserved  their  own  ways  of  Hfe  and 
thought  (Jeremiah  29  :  5  -6) .  Religiously  they  made  a 
great  discovery  which  fitted  into  the  assertions  of  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel.  They  found  it  possible  to  be  truly 
religious  in  spirit  and  obedient  to  Jehovah  although  no 
longer  able  to  offer  sacrifice  to  Him  at  Jerusalem.  They 
formed  the  habit  of  meeting  in  groups  for  prophetic 
counsel,  for  prayer,  and  for  the  reading  of  the  writings 
of  their  revered  leaders.  Thus  the  synagogue  as  a 
social  and  religious  institution  came  into  being.  It  so 
approved  itself  that  it  became  permanent.  A  good- 
sized  group  of  religious  leaders,  especially  priests,  busied 
themselves  in  collecting,  codifying,  and  adjusting  the 
ritual  laws  which  had  been  in  use,  but  had  not  been  put 
into  written  form.  Some  of  these  at  least  appeared 
eventually  in  the  Holiness  Code  (Leviticus  17-26). 
Ezekiel's  programme  of  worship  in  the  temple-to-be 
(40-48)  gave  evidence  of  the  influence  of  this  legal 
activity.  The  ideas  which  the  people  were  ready  to 
adopt  were  not  merely  those  of  olden  time,  but  such 
ideas  adapted  to  current  needs. 

The  fortunes  of  tlie  people  left  by  Nebuchadrezzar  in  Palestine 
and  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.     Jeremiah  40-43. 

Ezekiel's  helpful  ministry  to  the  Babylonian  group  of  exiles. 
Ezekiel  33-37;  40-48. 

The  friendliness  shown  to  the  imprisoned  Jehoiachin  by  the  son  of 
Nebuchadrezzar  on  his  accession.     II  Kings  25 :  27-30. 


THE  BABYLONIAN  EXILE  97 

4.    The  Fortunes  of  the  Chaldean  Empire. 

The  reign  of  Nebuchadrezzar  covered  the  first  half 
of  the  exile.  He  had  made  Babylon  a  synonym  of 
world  power,  even  Egypt  being  helpless  before  him.  He 
had  consolidated,  organized  and  held  a  vast  empire. 
He  wished  posterity  to  judge  him  by  his  reconstruction 
of  Babylon,  the  city  of  his  heart.  Its  huge  walls  were 
completed,  the  streets  were  reconstructed,  the  royal 
palace  rebuilt,  the  temples  restored,  the  great  canals 
made  secure.  Thus  a  great,  beautiful,  impregnable 
city  developed,  on  which  he  well  could  gaze  with  pride 
(Daniel  4 :  30) .  At  the  same  time  he  made  similar 
restorations  and  rebuildings  all  over  the  empire.  Of 
these  undertakings  rather  than  of  his  successes  in  war 
his  numerous  inscriptions  tell  the  story.  He  truly 
sought  to  serve  his  people  and  his  gods.  He  left  no 
real  successor. 

His  son,  Amil-Marduk  (Evil-Merodach),  succeeded 
Nebuchadrezzar  (561-560  B.C.).  The  one  Biblical 
fact  about  him  is  that  he  set  free  the  hapless  Jehoiachin, 
who  had  been  in  prison  some  thirty-six  years,  recog- 
nizing his  royal  standing.  After  a  reign  of  two  years 
he  was  slain.  His  successor,  Nergal-shar-usur,  had  a 
brief  though  vigorous  reign  of  four  years.  His  young 
son,  Labashi-Marduk,  reigned  less  than  a  year.  In  556 
B.  C.  a  conspiracy  of  nobles  and  priests  placed  Na- 
buna'id,  the  last  Chaldean  ruler,  on  the  throne,  which 
he  occupied  for  seventeen  years.  This  rapid  succession 
of  rulers  was  disastrous  to  the  Chaldean  empire.  There 
was  no  commanding  personality  to  wield  the  full  power 
of  the  throne.  Nabuna'id  was  far  superior  to  these 
predecessors,  yet  he  was  a  man  of  scholarly  tastes,  an 
antiquarian,  who  spent  his  time  and  resources  in  the 
discovery  and  renewal  of  ancient  temples  and  in  hon- 
oring their  gods,  rather  than  as  an  administrative  sover- 


98  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

eign.     The  actual  management  of  his  empire  he  left  to 
the  crown  prince,  Belshazzar. 


5.    The  Rise  of  Cyrus  the  Persian. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  empire  might  still 
have  endured  for  a  generation  or  more,  since  its  great 
rival  in  power.  Media,  cared  little  for  universal  domin- 
ion. About  550  B.  C.  three  rulers,  Nabuna'id,  the 
Chaldean;  Astyages,  the  Mede;  and  Croesus,  the  Lyd- 
ian,  controlled  between  them  the  western  half  of  all 
Asia.  Then  a  new  personality  suddenly  challenged 
that  world.  Cyrus,  the  prince  of  Anshan,  defeated 
Astyages,  his  overlord,  and  within  three  years  had  over- 
whelmed Croesus  and  conquered  all  of  Asia  Minor. 
Cyrus  built  a  soHd  foundation  for  the  Persian  empire 
by  uniting  all  the  tribes  and  peoples  who  before  had 
been  loosely  confederated.  By  546  B.  C,  therefore,  the 
western  i^-siatic  powers  were  reduced  to  two  in  number. 

For  several  years  Cyrus  made  no  serious  attempt  to 
invade  the  dominions  of  Nabuna'id.  That  he  would 
do  so  ultimately  was  perfectly  apparent.  To  this  time 
of  crisis  one  may  quite  safely  attribute  such  voices  as 
those  of  Isaiah  21:1-10;  13:1-14:23;  and  44:24- 
47 :  15,  which  were  declaring  the  impending  fate  of 
Babylon  and  the  plans  of  God;  and,  probably,  the 
wonderful  declarations  of  Isaiah  40-55  which  reached 
the  very  peak  of  prophetic  insight,  explaining  the  past 
centuries  as  a  time  of  training  and  the  coming  task  as 
that  of  evangelizing  the  world.^ 

In  539  B.  C.  Cyrus  was  ready  to  advance.  He 
reached  Babylon  after  slight  opposition  and  entered  its 
gates  through  priestly  treachery  without  striking  a 
blow.     Belshazzar,  the  co-regent,  was  slain,  and  Na- 

1  See  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  63-68. 


THE  BABYLONIAN  EXILE  99 

buna'id  was  deported.  Thus  at  a  stroke  all  western 
Asia  passed  from  the  rule  of  the  Semite  to  that  of  the 
Aryan  and  a  new  chapter  of  human  progress  began. 
The  first  effect  was  startling.  A  very  prompt  decree  of 
Cyrus  was  one  encouraging  the  captive  peoples  in 
Babylonia  to  return  to  their  homelands  with  all  their 
goods,  there  to  rebuild  their  old  prosperity  and  to  en- 
joy their  own  type  of  life  in  their  own  way.  No 
wonder  it  was  said  of  him  that  he  ruled  whole  peoples 
as  successfully  as  the  good  householder  ruled  his  family. 

6.    The  Results  of  the  Fifty  Years  of  Exile. 

This  half  century  had  wrought  great  changes  in  the 
Hebrew  people.  For  the  majority  Babylon  had  be- 
come a  relatively  desirable  home.  It  was  emphatically 
the  land  of  individual  opportunity,  both  economic  and 
cultural.  Their  sojourn  had  not  lessened  the  hold  of 
their  rehgion  upon  them,  but  it  had  broken  the  spell  of 
Jerusalem  and  of  Judah.  Henceforth  the  home  of  the 
greater  part  of  Jewry  was  the  world.  Wherever  busi- 
ness opportunity  beckoned,  they  made  themselves  at 
home.  To  many  a  loyal  Jew  this  indifference  to  Judah 
as  a  home  seemed  a  matter  to  be  challenged  and  over- 
come. But  it  was  all  in  the  Divine  plan  to  have  it  so. 
The  "Israel  abroad"  was  relatively  more  useful  in 
spreading  lofty  religious  idealism  over  the  world  than 
those  who  lived  in  Palestine.  Neither  could  be  spared: 
each  had  its  share  in  the  work  of  preparing  the  world 
for  Christ.  Both  had  reason  to  be  thankful  for  the 
two  generations  spent  by  the  people  in  Babylonia. 


IX 


THE  BUILDING  OF  THE  SECOND  TEMPLE 

Ezra  1-6  (538-516  B.  C.) 
The  Judean  Rulers  Persian  Kings 

Zerubbabel,  the  prince  1   538-516  Cyrus,  538-529 

Joshua,  the  high  priest  j   or  later.  Cambyses,  529-522 

Darius,  521-485 

The  generous  permission  of  Cyrus  for  the  return  of 
the  captive  Jews  of  Babylonia  to  their  Judean  home- 
land and  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  and  city  did 
not  draw  out  a  corresponding  response  from  the  Jews 
who  were  his  subjects.  In  place  of  a  general  departure 
to  Judah  only  a  small  band  returned.  The  great  king 
exercised  no  compulsion:  he  left  the  decision  to  the 
Jews  themselves.  But  a  half  century  of  unrestricted 
community  Hfe  in  Babylonia  had  created  new  ties. 
Babylon  seemed  like  home  to  the  great  majority  of  the 
people.  Most  of  those  who  had  actually  lived  in 
Judah  were  dead.  Only  deep-seated  and  very  genuine 
religious  zeal  would  carry  men  and  women  back  to 
wasted  Judah,  abandoning  Babylonian  opportunities. 

The  work  achieved  in  Judah  during  the  next  two 
decades  was  due  to  the  zeal  and  constancy  and  fore- 
sight of  a  relatively  small  group  of  choice  Jews.  They 
were  able  to  see  that  at  all  hazards  Jerusalem  must 
once  more  be  the  acknowledged  religious  centre  of  the 
Jewish  people.  This  implied  the  rebuilding  of  the  city 
and  of  the  temple.  The  latter  task  was  within  their 
resources  at  the  time.  How  deeply  spiritual  was  the 
purpose  of  the  best  among  them  is  to  be  inferred  from 

100 


THE  SECOND  TEMPLE  101 

the  glorious  preaching  of  the  prophet  Zechariah.^  He 
was  such  another  leader  as  Jeremiah  or  the  Great 
Unknown. 


I.    The  Retxim  of  a  Group  of  Exiles  to  Judah, 

The  story  of  the  return  as  given  in  Ezra  1-4  contains 
perplexing  data,  on  the  proper  interpretation  of  which 
students  sharply  disagree.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  a 
loyal  band  was  organized  in  537  B.  C.  to  make  the  long 
journey  to  Jerusalem.  The  hsted  thousands  of  Ezra 
2  may  represent  the  muster  roll  of  citizens  in  the  days 
of  Nehemiah  nearly  a  century  later  (Nehemiah  7). 
The  real  group  was  probably  much  smaller,  but  it  was 
a  choice  group.  Joshua  the  priest  and  Zerubbabel,  a 
prince  royal,  headed  the  volunteers.  The  first  gov- 
ernor appointed  by  Cyrus  may  have  been  Sheshbazzar 
(1:8;  5: 14-16),  but,  at  any  rate,  Zerubbabel  was  his 
successor. 

The  friendly  proclamation  of  Cyrus.     Ezra  1 : 1-4. 

Freewill  offerings  in  aid  of  the  return  to  Judah.     1 :  5-11. 

The  muster  roll  of  those  who  (eventually)  migrated.     2 :  1-70. 

The  speedy  building  of  the  altar  at  Jerusalem.     3 :  1-7. 

The  public  laying  of  the  cornerstone  of  the  second  temple.  3 : 
8-13. 

The  exclusion  of  the  "people  of  the  land"  from  the  task  of  build- 
ing and  their  reaction.     4 : 1-5,  24. 

On  reaching  the  goal  of  their  hopes  the  pilgrims  were 
eager  to  establish  a  regular  altar  service  on  the  sacred 
hilltop.  They  repaired  the  altar,  observed  the  feast 
of  Tabernacles  and  such  other  feasts  as  were  due,  and 
inaugurated  a  simple  but  regular  system  of  worship. 
With  overpowering  joy  they  thus  renewed  the  religious 
experiences  of  the  past. 

^  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  69-66. 


102  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

2.  Plans  for  Rebuilding  the  Temple. 

According  to  the  book  of  Ezra,  they  lost  no  time  in 
taking  steps  to  rebuild  the  temple.  Workmen  were 
secured  and  timber  engaged  from  the  Phoenician  mer- 
chants. Early  in  the  second  year  they  laid  the  founda- 
tion stone  with  due  ceremony.  It  was  with  mingled 
joy  and  grief  that  aged  and  strong  alike  saw  the  ap- 
parent fruition  of  their  long-cherished  hopes.  The 
"people  of  the  land,"  probably  those  who  were  in  large 
part  of  Jewish  blood  but  who  had  deteriorated  during 
the  half  century  and  were  not  recognized  by  the  Baby- 
lonian leaders  as  worthy  to  represent  Jewish  ideals, 
asked  for  a  share  in  the  enterprise.  When  rather  curtly 
refused,  they  became  bitter  enemies,  blocking  the  trans- 
port of  timber  and  otherwise  preventing  the  continuance 
of  the  task.  For  sixteen  years  this  situation  con- 
tinued.^ 

3.  The  Accession  of  Darius  to  the  Throne  of  Persia. 
Cyrus  died  in  529  B.  C,  leaving  a  united  and  pros- 
perous realm.  His  son,  Cambyses,  lacked  the  father's 
gift  for  government  and  for  self-control.  He  added 
Egypt  to  the  empire  over  which  he  ruled,  but  he  could 
not  develop  it  properly.  He  took  his  own  life  in  a  fit 
of  rage  on  hearing  that  a  pretender  to  his  throne  was 
making  headway  during  his  absence  in  Egypt.  This 
rival,  Smerdis,  impersonated  a  younger  brother  whom 
Cambyses  had  slain  secretly.  Smerdis  was  slain  by 
a  group  of  suspicious  nobles,  who  elected  one  of  their 
own  number,  Darius,  to  the  throne  of  Persia.  Not 
being  an  heir  to  the  throne,  Darius  had  to  face  and 
master  a  revolt  in  each  one  of  the  great  provinces  of 

» The  full  historicity  of  these  interesting  details  is  open  to  question,  although  they 
must  rest  on  real  tradition.  Some  students,  on  the  authority  of  I  Esdras,  transfer 
these  achievements  to  the  early  reign  of  Darius. 


THE  SECOND  TEMPLE  103 

the  Persian  empire.     This  great  task  he  had  achieved 
by  the  early  months  of  519  B.  C. 

4.  The  Appeals  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  on  Behalf 
of  the  Temple. 
Meanwhile,  either  during  the  interval  of  relaxed 
supervision  in  the  "westland/*  or  because  something 
encouraging  had  happened,  two  prophets  of  the  Judean 
colony  seized  the  opportunity  to  recall  the  community 
to  its  duty.  It  had  made  no  attempt  to  press  the  build- 
ing of  the  temple,  yet  its  members  had  made  comfort- 
able provision  for  themselves.  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
felt  that  the  hindrances  were  no  longer  serious  and 
that  concerted  action  could  achieve  the  desired  and 
important  result.  They  set  themselves  to  the  task  of 
arousing  their  people.  Haggai  led  o&  with  a  trumpet- 
Hke  appeal  to  "arise  and  build,'*  following  this  exhorta- 
tion with  others  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  successful  appeal  of  Haggai  and  of  Zechariah  to  the  people  to 
build  the  temple.  Ezra  5:1,  i.  Cf.  also  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
1-8. 

The  inquiry  of  Tattenai,  the  governor  of  the  province,  and  its 
happy  outcome.     5  :  3-6 :  13. 

The  completion  of  the  temple  in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius.     6 :  14-15. 

The  solemn  dedication  of  the  new  temple.     6 :  16-22. 

The  effect  was  magical.  With  fresh  heart  the  people 
entered  into  the  sacred  task.  The  prophet  Zechariah 
not  only  added  his  influence  to  Haggai's,  but  during 
the  four  years  of  building  did  much  to  emphasize  the 
significant  relationship  of  the  temple  to  the  religious 
future  of  the  people. 

It  was  not  at  all  strange  that  the  governor  of  the 
great  Persian  province  of  "Beyond-River"  (i.  e.,  west 
of  the  Euphrates)  should  hear  of  the  unusual  activity 
in  Jerusalem  and  inquire  into  it.     The  Jewish  com- 


104  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

munity  is  reported  to  have  cited  the  decree  of  Cyrus 
as  their  justification.  When  this  was  reported  to 
Darius,  the  decree  was  found,  whereupon  the  great 
king  not  only  confirmed  its  terms,  but  ordered  the 
governor  to  aid  the  people  in  speeding  up  the  work. 
Under  such  royal  approval  the  temple  rapidly  reached 
its  completion  in  516  B.  C,  the  sixth  year  of  Darius, 
and  was  dedicated  with  great  solemnity. 

5.  The  Significance  of  the  Temple. 

In  size  and  general  arrangement  the  new  temple  was 
probably  much  like  the  old  one.  Most  of  the  costly 
equipment  and  adornments  which  Solomon  provided 
had  disappeared.  The  new  temple  must  have  been  in 
comparison  with  the  old  rather  plain  and  unimposing, 
yet  it  had  even  greater  dignity.  It  stood  alone  on 
Mt.  Zion.  No  royal  palace  shared  its  impressiveness; 
no  hint  of  the  civil  power  belittled  its  importance.  It 
embodied,  in  accordance  with  Ezekiel's  vision,  the  un- 
challenged dominance  of  God,  and  exerted  an  influence 
which  far  exceeded  that  of  its  predecessor. 

The  vast  majority  of  all  those  of  Jewish  blood  lived 
outside  of  Palestine,  but  the  new  temple  caused  great 
rejoicing  among  them.  It  was  the  symbol  of  their  re- 
ligion, the  visible  goal  of  their  hopes.  It  meant  to 
them  that  Jehovah  once  more  dwelt  with  His  people, 
and  that  His  promises  were  surely  to  be  fulfilled  in 
His  good  time.  It  defined  and  steadied  their  loyalty; 
because  of  the  Temple  and  its  meaning  Jerusalem  be- 
came the  rallying  and  standardizing  influence  in  Jewish 
hfe. 

6.  The  Disappearance  of  Zerubbabel. 

Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  the  Jerusalem  community 
had  set  high  hopes  upon  Zerubbabel,  the  prince.     They 


THE  SECOND  TEMPLE  105 

looked  to  him  to  fulfil  the  prophetic  promises  of  ideal 
leadership.  Zeehariah  specifically  regarded  him  as 
answering  Jeremiah's  prediction  (Jeremiah  23  :  5)  of  a 
"Branch"  (Zeehariah  3:8).  But  they  were  doomed 
to  disappointment.  Zerubbabel  disappeared  from  view 
in  the  course  of  the  long  reign  of  Darius  (521-485  B.  C), 
and  with  him  the  Davidic  dynastic  hopes.  Either  his 
rule  was  lacking  in  success,  or  it  led  to  some  intrigue, 
or  else  the  centralizing  policy  of  Darius  caused  the 
gradual  setting  aside  of  influential  local  leaders.  To 
the  Jews  in  Palestine  and  to  Jews  every\v^here  this  must 
have  been  deeply  disheartening.  There  was  no  prophet 
great  enough  to  comprehend  the  real  method  through 
which  God  was  to  execute  His  purposes.  Not  through 
any  political  supremacy  of  the  Jewish  community  in 
Judah,  however  devoted  that  group  might  show  itself 
to  be,  but  through  the  infiltration  of  the  world  of  that 
day  by  little  Jewish  groups  who  went  wherever  business 
opportunity  opened,  was  the  world  to  be  drawn  toward 
higher  religious  ideals.  The  leadership  for  which  all 
loyal  Jews  longed  was  not  to  be  through  the  sort  of 
king  they  anticipated.  For  the  Divine  purpose  the 
Israel  abroad  became  of  greater  importance  than  the 
Israel  at  home.  This  was  not  realized,  however,  until 
one  more  great  step  had  been  taken  by  those  at  home. 

7.    The  New  "  Israel." 

The  completion  of  the  temple  concluded  the  period 
of  exile.  With  its  dedication  the  old  life  was  resumed, 
yet  with  a  fresh  and  stronger  setting.  The  seventy 
years  of  Babylonian  influence  had  wrought  several  im- 
portant permanent  changes  in  the  religious  life  of  the 
Jewish  people.  The  old  temptation  to  idolatry  seems 
to  have  disappeared.  All  devotion  centered  about 
Jehovah  and  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.     The  old  dis- 


106  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

tractions  had  ceased  to  have  any  power.  There  was 
no  king  who  thought  of  the  temple  and  its  belongings 
as  being  subject  to  his  will.  The  supreme  national  au- 
thority in  the  community  was  the  high  priest,  especially 
after  the  civil  headship  passed  to  a  foreigner.  As  the 
people  realized  their  political  impotence,  the  whole 
trend  of  popular  activity  and  interest  became  religious. 
The  synagogue  and  the  scribes  grew  in  importance  and 
influence  along  with  the  priesthood  and  their  Levitical 
associates.  The  worship  at  the  Temple  gave  an  incen- 
tive to  psalmody  that  produced  many  of  the  beautiful 
hymns  of  our  Psalter. 

Four  changes  in  religious  thinking  and  practice  began 
to  be  evident :  (1)  Under  the  influence  of  such  leaders 
as  Ezekiel  there  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  ritualiza- 
tion  of  religion.  (2)  Babylonian  and  Persian  thought 
may  account  for  a  growing  sense  of  Jehovah's  greatness 
and  distance  from  His  people.  (3)  This  remoteness  of 
Jehovah  made  easier  the  current  recognition  of  super- 
human beings  who  were  His  intermediaries  (Zechariah 
1 :  9,  13;  2  :  3;  3  :  5).  (4)  Most  marked fof  all  was  the 
gradual  transition  in  religious  thinking  from  the  pro- 
phetic view-point  which  stressed  the  duty  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  apocalyptical  hopes  which  expected  Je- 
hovah to  fulfil  His  promises  through  the  exercise  of  His 
overwhelming  might.  In  any  case,  however,  men's 
minds  rested  on  [God.  ReHgion  had  become  to  them 
the  supreme  fact  in  history.  They  were  in  line  to  be- 
come the  world's  teachers  about  rehgion. 


THE  FIRM  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM 

Ezra  7  :  1-Nehemiah  13  :  31  (516  to  about  330  B.  C.) 

Persian  Kings  Greek  Rulers 

Darius,  521-486  Philip,  359-336 

Xerxes  I,  486-466  Alexander,  336-323 

Artaxerxes  I,  466-425 
Darius  II,  425-404 
Artaxerxes  II  (Mnemon),  404-358 
Artaxerxes  III  (Ochus),  358-337 
Darius  III,  337-331 

The  century  and  more  which  followed  the  rebuilding 
of  the  temple  was  a  period  during  which  the  tendencies 
already  noted  toward  formahsm,  organization,  and  au- 
thority in  religion  came  slowly  to  fruition.  There  is 
no  reference  in  the  books  of  Ezra  or  Nehemiah  to  the 
first  sixty  or  seventy  years  of  this  time.  There  are 
sound  reasons,  however,  for  concluding  that  the  lot  of 
the  Judean  community  was  not  prosperous,  perhaps 
deplorable.  Not  only  did  the  Messianic  expectations 
fail  to  materialize,  but  the  community  seemed  pursued 
by  ill  fortune.  Harvests  failed,  yet  the  tax-gatherer 
was  merciless.  The  priesthood  became  careless  and 
even  corrupt.  Social  injustice  led  to  scepticism  and 
thus  to  indifference  to  exactness  of  ritual,  to  regularity 
of  temple  worship,  and  even  to  racial  purity.  There 
was  real  danger  of  a  breakdown  all  along  the  line  of 
racial  distinctiveness,  when  the  prophet  Malachi  and 
Isaiah  56-66  entered  their  glowing  and  earnest  appeals 
for  reform.     It  is  fair  to  say  that  the  proper  main- 

107 


108  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

tenance  of  these  ideals  waited  upon  the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem  as  a  secure  city  with  a  v,all  and  a  policy. 
Nehemiah's  work  undergirded  reform  in  the  only  sure 
way.     He  was,  like  Ezra,  a  coadjutor  of  these  prophets. 

I.    The  Persian  Empire  and  the  Greeks. 

These  unrecorded  decades  were  years  during  which 
the  Persian  empire  was  at  its  best.  Darius  was  a  firm, 
just,  and  skilful  ruler.  He  adopted  a  provincial  or- 
ganization of  his  vast  empire  that  enabled  him  to  con- 
trol it  absolutely.  He  introduced  coined  money  into 
Asia,  made  Persia  a  power  on  the  sea  as  well  as  on  the 
land,  and  built  excellent  roads  all  over  the  empire. 
His  one  thorn  in  the  flesh  were  his  Ionian  subjects,  who 
gave  him  much  trouble,  being  assisted  by  the  Greeks 
of  Europe.  He  determined  to  subjugate  the  whole 
Hellenic  peninsula.  A  huge  army  and  fleet  in  492  B.  C. 
met  with  disaster.  Another  greater  army  was  defeated 
at  Marathon.  In  the  midst  of  his  preparations  for  a 
third  expedition  Darius  died.  His  son  and  successor, 
Xerxes  I  (486-466  B.  C.),  determined  at  all  costs  to 
crush  the  defiant  opponents  of  his  will.  He  raised  an 
enormous  array  and  fleet  which  he  accompanied  in 
order  to  witness  their  prowess.  At  Salamis  the  huge 
fleet  was  routed  by  that  of  Athens.  The  next  year  at 
Platsea  the  Persian  army  was  scattered  and  compelled 
to  flee.  No  Persian  army  ever  invaded  European  soil 
again.  Moreover,  the  Greeks  had  learned  their  power 
and  henceforth  were  ready  to  take  the  aggressive  in 
Asia.  They  could  do  little  for  over  a  century,  for  they 
were  not  united,  while  the  Persian  empire  was  colossal 
in  size  and  in  resources.  For  the  next  thirty  years, 
until  Avell  into  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I  (466-425  B.  C.), 
the  gradual  decadence  of  the  Persian  empire  was 
hardly  noticeable.     This  last-mentioned  sovereign  was 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM    109 

the  friend  and  patron  of  Nehemiah,  whom  he  enabled 
to  render  a  supremely  important  service  to  the  Jewish 
race. 

2.    The  Data  Regarding  Nehemiah  and  Ezra. 

The  data  regarding  the  work  of  Nehemiah  and  of 
Ezra  are  found  in  Ezra  4:  8-23;  7-10  and  in  Nehemiah. 
These  data  were  assembled  by  the  writer  of  Chronicles, 
who  Hved  over  two  hundred  years  later  than  the  events. 
They  seem  in  great  confusion,  and  concerning  their  in- 
terpretation there  is  a  strong  difference  of  opinion 
among  competent  students.  The  order,  as  outhned 
below,  is  discussed  later. 

The  evils  which  came  to  prevail  in  the  Jerusalem  community. 

Isaiah  59 :  1-8;  Malachi  1 :  7-10,  13;  2 :  10-11;  3:8. 
How  Ezra  the  scribe  obtained  permission  to  lead  an  expedition 

from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem.     Ezra  7. 
The  departure  from  Babylonia  and  safe  arrival  at  Jerusalem.     8. 
Ezra's  decisive  action  in  regard  to  mixed  marriages.     9,  10. 
An  attempt  to  build  the  wall  of  the  city  frustrated.     4  :  8-23. 
The  delegation  from  Jerusalem  appeals  to  Nehemiah  at  Susa. 

Nehemiah  1 :  1-3. 
His  resolve  to  undertake  the  task  of  rebuilding  Jerusalem.     1:4-11. 
His  successful  plea  to  Artaxerxes  and  appointment  as  governor. 

2:1-8. 
His   shrewd  preliminary   study  of  the   situation   at   Jerusalem. 

2:9-16. 
His  successful  appeal  to  the  whole  community  to  join  in  the  en- 
terprise.    2 :  17-3 :  32. 
The  various  stratagems  of  Sanballat  and  his  group  to  block  the 

work  on  the  wall.     4  :  1-23;  6  : 1-14,  17-19. 
The  measures  taken  by  Nehemiah  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the 

weak  and  poor  in  the  community.     5 : 1-13. 
His  own  self-sacrificing  generosity  to  all.     5 :  14-19, 
The  noteworthy  completion  of  the  city  wall.     6 :  15,  16. 
The  measures  taken  to  guard  the  city  against  attack.     7:1-4. 
Those  taken  to  increase  the  population  of  the  city.     11:1,  2. 
The  solemn  dedication  of  the  walls.     12 :  27-43. 
Nehemiah's  second  visit  and  vigorous  reforms.     13:  4-31. 
The  public  reading  of  the  Law  under  Ezra's  direction.     8 :  1-12. 
The  proper  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Tabernacles.     8 :  13-18. 


110  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  public  fast  and  confession  of  sinfulness.     9. 
The  solemn  covenant  to  obey  the  Law.     10 : 1-29. 
Its  obligations.     10  :  30-39. 

The  events  described  in  these  chapters  may  cover 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  That  they 
took  place  may  be  regarded  as  certain;  the  order  in 
which  they  happened  is  obscure.  Many  thoughtful 
students  hold  that  Nehemiah  preceded  Ezra.  Some 
hold  that  the  Artaxerxes  under  whose  patronage  Ezra 
made  the  journey  to  Jerusalem  was  not  Artaxerxes  I, 
Nehemiah's  patron,  but  Artaxerxes  II  (Mnemon),  who 
reigned  from  404-358  B.  C.  Some  go  so  far  as  to  re- 
gard Ezra  as  the  mere  personification  of  the  historical 
trend  toward  the  reorganization  of  the  religious  fife  of 
the  Jewish  people  which  was  conceived  and  developed 
by  the  scribes.  Allowing  liberally  for  the  idealizing 
tendencies  of  the  Chronicles,  this  conclusion  seems  un- 
warranted and  unnecessary.  Some  such  leadership  as 
that  of  Ezra  seems  as  essential  to  the  remarkable 
achievement  of  establishing  Judaism  as  the  social  and 
religious  guide  of  the  Jewish  people  as  that  of  Nehemiah 
was  needed  for  the  rehabilitation  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
community.  We  may,  therefore,  properly  regard  him 
as  a  historical  character  and  study  the  records,  not 
alone  to  furnish  a  clear  account  of  the  two  great  achieve- 
ments, but  as  portraying  two  t^'pical  leaders,  who  did 
much  for  the  Jewish  people. 

3.    The  Situation  Which  They  Faced. 

The  situation  which  initiated  this  important  half 
century  is  vividly  set  forth  in  the  prophetic  writings 
which  are  to  be  dated  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, Isaiah  56-59,  63-66  and  Malachi.^     Each  reveals 

1  See  Old  Testament  Prophecy,  pp.  66-71. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM    111 

a  deplorable  situation,  socially  and  religiously.  The 
priesthood,  who  wielded  authority,  had  grown  very  lax. 
They  tolerated  intermarriage  with  surrounding  peoples, 
probably  for  the  sake  of  the  commercial  and  social  ad- 
vantages involved.  They  permitted  and  exhibited  in- 
difference in  regard  to  worship.  The  Sabbath  was 
neglected.  The  wealthy  oppressed  the  poor.  In  brief, 
the  community  was  rapidly  losing  its  morale  and  was 
in  danger  of  losing  such  religious  uplift  as  it  had  gained 
through  the  re-established  temple. 

Whether  Ezra  or  Nehemiah  was  the  first  to  deal  with 
this  situation  will  always  remain  a  matter  of  dispute. 
The  Chronicler,  by  the  order  of  his  narrative,  implies 
that  the  priority  was  with  Ezra.  Since,  if  this  was  the 
case,  the  reader  must  conclude  that  Ezra's  reforms 
were  so  sudden  and  sweeping  that  they  brought  about 
a  reaction  which  set  him  aside  for  thirteen  years,  it 
will  afford  a  clearer  view  of  the  half  century  and  its 
changes  to  begin  with  the  rehabiUtation  of  Jerusalem 
under  Nehemiah,  about  445-430  B.  C.  The  story  of 
his  enterprise,  told  largely  in  his  own  words,  is  one  of 
the  fascinating  narratives  of  the  Old  Testament.  Evi- 
dently the  Chronicler  adopted  Nehemiah's  own,  first- 
hand memoirs. 

4.    Nehemiah's  Summons  to  Service. 

Conditions  at  Jerusalem  had  never  been  satisfactory 
since  the  first  return  under  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel  and 
the  building  of  the  temple.  Much  of  the  city  still  lay 
in  ruins.  It  lay  open  to  hostile  attack.  Its  walls  had 
never  been  repaired.  Ezra  4 :  8-23  relates  an  attempt 
to  do  this,  which  was  ended  by  force,  possibly  not  long 
before  the  appeal  to  Nehemiah.  In  despair  the  better 
citizens  determined  to  turn  for  aid  to  their  countryman, 
Nehemiah,  and  sent  a  delegation  on  the  long  journey 


112  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

to  Susa  to  give  their  appeal  due  emphasis.  Nehemiah 
was  a  favorite  of  Artaxerxes,  his  personal  cupbearer, 
influential,  wealthy,  and  cultured,  one  of  the  foremost 
men  of  his  race.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  community 
at  Jerusalem  determined  to  place  its  case  before  such 
a  man,  a  loyal,  important  and  friendly-minded  Jew. 
Nehemiah  might  well  have  said  that  he  could  not  yield 
his  influential  place  at  the  heart  of  the  empire  for  the 
task  of  reconstructing  a  little  community,  but  he  was 
no  ordinary  man.  He  realized  even  better  than  the 
deputation  the  importance  of  the  task  in  the  light  of 
world-wide  Judaism  and  its  future.  Dedicating  him- 
self to  it  prayerfully,  he  waited  the  opportunity  to  gain 
the  requisite  permission  from  his  sovereign.  When  it 
came  he  was  prepared  to  ask  for  what  he  needed. 
He  was  made  governor  of  the  district  with  ample 
powers. 

5.    Nehemiah  the  Builder. 

The  Jewish  community  had  many  enemies  who  were 
profiting  by  its  weakness  and  had  no  desire  to  see  its 
security.  They  had  been  able,  hitherto,  to  baffle  all 
real  attempts  to  make  the  city  and  community  strong. 
In  Nehemiah  they  encountered  an  opponent  of  a  new 
order.  He  was  the  great  king's  friend;  he  had  the 
authority  of  a  ruler;  he  was  a  man  of  fine  training  and 
of  varied  experience.  When  he  reached  Jerusalem  his 
first  act  was  to  see  the  situation  for  himself,  his  second 
to  unite  the  people  for  an  enthusiastic,  cooperative  re- 
building of  the  walls  of  the  city.  He  guarded  them  at 
the  work  and  dealt  with  all  opposition,  some  of  which 
was  exceedingly  clever.  Nehemiah  was  too  genuine 
and  too  wise  to  be  entangled  by  his  opponents;  he  kept 
the  work  going  so  that  in  a  very  short  time  the  wall  of 
the  city  was  repaired. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM    113 

6.  Nehemiah  as  Organizer  and  Reformer. 

During  the  preceding  century  few  Judeans  had  Hved 
within  the  confines  of  the  ruined  cit^^  The  bulk  of  the 
Jews  who  made  the  temple  the  centre  of  their  religious 
life  Hved  in  the  villages  round  about.  Many  of  these 
were  persuaded  to  take  up  their  abode  in  Jerusalem. 
The  city  was  quickly  made  secure  also  through  proper 
organization.  Nehemiah  then  held  a  solemn  festival 
of  dedication  in  which  the  leaders  participated,  mark- 
ing the  importance  of  what  had  been  done. 

Nehemiah  grappled  boldly  with  the  situation  in  the 
community.  At  a  great  people's  assembly  he  charged 
the  grasping  men  of  property  with  sinful  unbrotherli- 
ness  in  their  treatment  of  the  poor,  and  forced  them, 
through  very  shame,  to  reform.  He  set  all  a  noble 
example  of  a  friendly  and  generous  use  of  power.  Dur- 
ing his  second  governorship,  after  a  short  interval  at 
court,  he  put  through  with  vigor  a  series  of  religious  re- 
forms which  he  may  have  left  previously  to  the  priest- 
hood. He  regulated  the  distribution  of  the  Levitical 
tithes;  he  expelled  foreign  intruders,  he  forced  the 
proper  observance  of  the  Sabbath  and  insisted  on  the 
discontinuance  of  the  habit  of  marrying  Gentiles.  A 
chief  offender  was  the  grandson  of  the  high  priest,  who 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Sanballat,  the  Samaritan 
chief.  Nehemiah  expelled  him  from  the  community.^ 
These  vigorous  measures  went  far  to  unify  and  hearten 
the  community.     It  began  to  Hve  up  to  its  principles. 

7.  The  Importance  of  Nehemiah's  Work. 

The  value  of  Nehemiah's  contributions  to  the  life  of 
his  people  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  First  of  all, 
he  embodied  in  his  own  fine  personality  the  good  traits 
of  his  people  at  their  best — lofty  patriotism,  far-sighted- 

1  He  was  instrumental  in  establishing  in  Samaria,  a  parallel  religious  practice,  which 
persists  even  to-day. 


114  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

ness,  efficiency,  the  spiritual  view-point,  and  entire  de- 
votion to  the  execution  of  his  principles.  He  bettered 
the  community  by  his  mere  presence.  Then  he  carried 
to  completion  the  task  of  making  it  secure.  He  built 
more  than  a  wall :  he  recreated  a  racial  life.  Judah  had 
to  be  at  its  best  in  order  that  all  the  Jews  who  looked 
to  Jerusalem  should  maintain  their  standards.  Finally 
Nehemiah  insisted  that  those  standards,  already  clearly 
defined,  should  be  loyally  sustained.  He  was  in  full 
sympathy  with  the  ideals  of  Jewish  life  as  they  had 
been  formulated  during  a  century  or  more  by  devoted 
leaders.  Without  his  leadership  these  would  have  been 
in  danger  of  lapsing  at  the  sacred  city  itself. 

8.    The  Task  of  Ezra. 

On  the  foundations  which  Nehemiah  thus  laid  there 
were  others  eager  and  ready  to  build.  For  several 
generations  the  Jewish  scribes,  whose  headquarters 
had  remained  in  Babylonia,  had  been  at  the  work  of 
codifying  the  whole  law.  The  Deuteronomic  code, 
adopted  621  B.  C.  (p.  84)  and  recognized  as  the  standard 
law  of  the  Jewish  people,  was  a  social  more  than  a  cere- 
monial code.  But  Ezekiel  and  those  who  followed  him 
had  urged  the  importance  of  a  fresh  emphasis  upon 
ceremonial  in  the  interests  of  holiness.  The  scribes, 
therefore,  gave  themselves  to  the  congenial  task  of 
collating  all  the  established  ceremonial  usages,  of 
formulating  and  codifying  them.  The  outcome  was  the 
elaborated  code  found  in  the  books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
and  Numbers,  generally  known  as  the  Priestly  Code, 
which,  as  noted  earlier  (p.  96),  incorporated  the  earlier 
and  simpler  codes.  The  extent  of  genuine  editorial  work 
cannot  be  clearly  defined.  The  code  was  an  aggrega- 
tion of  groups  of  ceremonial  legislation,  developed  over 
a  period  of  several  centuries,  formulating  on  the  whole 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM    115 

an  elaborate  ritual  for  the  guidance  of  life,  socially  as 
well  as  religiously,  religious  demands  being  counted  as 
supreme  in  importance.  Like  the  Deuteronomic  code 
it  was  truly  Mosaic  in  principles. 

Ezra,  the  scribe,  assumed  the  duty  of  securing  the 
free  adoption  of  this  comprehensive  ceremonial  law  by 
the  people  at  Jerusalem  as  the  standard  law  of  com- 
munity life.  There  are  those  who  regard  Ezra  as  only 
the  personification  of  a  slow,  irresistible  movement 
toward  a  ceremonial  system  extending  over  many  years. 
The  question  is  relatively  unimportant,  since  no  one 
questions  the  actual  adoption  of  the  new  system  within 
the  range  of  the  fifth  century.  In  favor  of  the  narra- 
tive as  given  in  the  Bible  it  may  be  urged  that  the 
actual  putting  into  play  of  any  such  far-reaching 
changes  would  surely  have  called  for  the  persistent 
advocacy  of  some  such  leader  as  Ezra,  whose  failings 
are  those  common  to  geniuses  of  the  study,  but  whose 
energy,  devotedness,  and  greatness  of  soul  are  unques- 
tioned. 

9.    His  Mixed  Marriage  Reform. 

Ezra  7-10,  which  tells  the  story  of  Ezra's  going  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  represents  him  as  a  famous 
scribe  who  yearned  to  secure  the  adoption  at  the  holy 
city  of  the  scheme  of  strict  religious  and  social  life 
which  he  and  his  brethren  had  worked  out.  He  secured 
permission  from  Artaxerxes  to  head  a  new  pilgrimage, 
gaining  many  unusual  privileges.  In  either  458  or  397 
B.  C.  (according  to  the  Artaxerxes  of  Ezra  7),  he  reached 
Jerusalem  with  a  numerous  train  of  devoted  men  and 
women,  and  with  costly  gifts  for  the  temple.  Soon  after 
his  arrival  he  learned  that  the  people  of  the  Jewish 
community,  abetted  and  even  led  by  those  whose  ex- 
ample should  have  been  corrective,  were  permitting 


116  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

marriages  with  the  surrounding  peoples,  and  thus  en- 
dangering the  purity  of  the  Jewish  stock.  Ezra  felt 
acutely  the  danger  of  this  course  and  took  measures  to 
stir  the  popular  conscience.  They  urged  him  to  take 
proper  steps  to  set  the  situation  right.  He  thereupon 
appointed  a  commission  of  inspection  which  in  three 
months  carried  through  a  drastic  reform,  compelling 
those  who  had  married  foreign  women  to  put  them 
away.  Whether  this  was  judicious  or  not,  it  was  ef- 
fectual. Public  sentiment  became  prevaihngly  anti- 
foreign  thereafter. 

ID.    The  Adoption  of  the  Ceremonial  Law. 

The  greater  task  before  Ezra  was  the  adoption  of 
the  new  law  by  the  community  (Nehemiah  8-10).  At 
a  time  not  exactly  to  be  determined,  either  soon  after 
the  reconstruction  of  the  city  by  Nehemiah  or  long 
afterward,  the  whole  community  assembled  to  hear 
the  law  w^hich  Ezra  had  brought.  All  were  in  a  recep- 
tive mood,  of  which  Ezra  took  full  advantage.  For 
hours  he  read  aloud  the  book  of  the  Law,  his  associates 
interpreting  the  Hebrew  into  Aramaic,  the  language 
which  the  people  spoke.  The  hearts  of  all  were  deeply 
moved;  a  spirit  of  glad  obedience  prevailed.  Day  after 
day  the  public  reading  continued.  The  outcome  was  a 
solemn  rededication  of  the  whole  people  to  the  service 
of  God  and  the  signing  of  a  covenant,  through  their 
representatives,  that  all  would  live  by  the  provisions 
of  the  new  law.     The  covenant  explicitly  mentioned 

(1)  the  avoidance  of  marriage  with  those  of  alien  blood; 

(2)  the  rigid  observance  of  the  Sabbath;  (3)  the  obser- 
vance of  the  sabbatical  year;  and  (4)  the  regular  pro- 
vision of  supplies,  so  that  the  temple  service  could  be 
maintained  with  full  dignity  and  completeness.  Thus 
came  to  fruitage  the  long,  patient,  persevering  work  of 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM    117 

the  scribal  order,  which  had  welded  into  a  workable 
unity  the  ceremonial  usages  of  the  centuries  since  Moses. 

II.    The  Character  of  This  Law. 

Through  this  law  thus  adopted  officially  at  the  centre 
of  Jewish  life  the  ritualistic  tendencies  of  Jewish  reli- 
gious life  reached  a  climax.  The  idea  emphasized  by 
Ezekiel  and  in  the  Holiness  code  (p.  96)  that  the  holiness 
of  the  people  could  be  best  upheld  by  a  rigid  ceremoni- 
alism which  should  control  the  whole  active  life  of  the 
people  was  put  into  actual  practice.  The  nation  became 
a  church,  its  purity  carefully  guarded  from  outside  con- 
tamination by  rigid  rules,  its  aim  the  earning  of  forgive- 
ness for  sins,  its  one  great  anxiety  the  exact  execution  of 
every  religious  or  ceremonial  duty.  Such  a  type  of  reli- 
gious life  was  something  new  in  Israel's  history.  Neither 
the  original  Mosaic  measures,  nor  the  covenant  legisla- 
tion, nor  the  Deuteronomic  law,  nor  the  historical  data 
found  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  reflect  it.  It 
was  a  fresh  working  out  of  the  underlying  Mosaic  prin- 
ciples into  a  scheme  of  life  which  recognized  Jehovah 
as  the  Lord  of  all,  which  made  His  proper  worship  life's 
supreme  obligation,  which  found  its  highest  joy  in 
doing  His  will,  which  emphasized  afresh  the  uniqueness 
of  Israel's  place  in  His  plans  for  the  world  and  gave  it 
the  task  of  perfect  obedience  and  worthiness.  This 
Priestly  Code,  as  students  term  it,  was  the  expression 
of  a  noble  idea.  Its  great  defect  was  that  it  formulated 
duty  in  terms  of  ceremonial  rather  than  in  terms  of 
character  and  spiritual  aspiration.  It  did  not  over- 
look the  latter  elements,  but  assumed  their  develop- 
ment under  the  system.  The  prophetic  emphasis  was 
on  the  moral  and  spiritual  point  of  view  as  being  eter- 
nally important.  It  valued  ceremonial  as  an  adjunct 
to  religious  life,  not  as  its  chief  expression. 


118  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

12.  Its  Gradual  Establishment. 

Judaism  seemed  to  express  and  satisfy  the  religious 
needs  of  that  day.  It  seems  to  us  to  have  replaced  the 
noble  idealism  of  the  prophets  by  a  formal  institution- 
alism  which  made  rehgion  an  irksome  daily  task.  But 
obedience  to  the  Law,  however  comphcated,  was  cheer- 
fully assumed;  the  round  of  reUgious  duties  kept  alive 
in  the  hearts  of  most  Jews  a  real  religious  spirit.  It  is 
generally  agreed  that  only  the  close  organization  of 
Judaism  enabled  it  to  survive  the  fierce  conflicts  and 
fiery  trials  of  the  centuries  immediately  following. 
The  Jews  not  only  became  adjusted  to  their  rehgion  as 
shaped  by  the  requirements  of  the  Law,  but  this  stand- 
ardization of  their  every-day  life  brought  them  both 
joy  and  strength.  The  Pharisaism  and  the  Rabbinic 
developments  of  later  days  were  really  one-sided  out- 
growths. 

13.  The  Priestly  History. 

Among  the  scribes  of  priestly  origin  were  some  who 
felt  the  need  of  another  history  of  their  people.  They 
did  not  undervalue,  necessarily,  the  combined  prophetic 
history  and  law  book  which  represented  to  their  genera- 
tion the  interpretation  of  that  history,  and  of  its  ideals 
by  venerated  pre-exiKc  prophetic  minds  (p.  92).  They 
felt,  however,  that  a  history  was  needed  which  should 
explain  the  origin  and  value  of  Israel's  peculiar  insti- 
tutions, now  become  so  important  in  their  eyes,  yet 
overlooked  in  large  measure  by  the  prophetic  historians, 
and  they  set  themselves  to  the  task  of  preparing  it. 

This  history  began  with  the  stately  poem  about 
creation  of  Genesis  1,  whose  sublime  conception  of 
God  in  His  creative  power  seems  much  more  akin  to 
Isaiah  40-48  than  to  earlier  thinking.  It  upheld 
throughout  the  idea  of  a  holy  Sovereign,  supreme  in 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  JUDAISM    119 

majesty,  sitting  in  Judgment  on  men.  Yet  it  dwelt 
distinctively  upon  the  details  of  descent,  upon  the 
origins  of  sacred  customs  and  ritual  practices,  and  upon 
the  growth  of  a  sense  of  covenant  relationship  between 
Israel  and  Jehovah.  As  a  history  it  contributed  little 
to  the  data  already  known;  but  it  set  forth  a  truly 
religious  explanation  of  the  organized  growth  of  the 
nation. 

14.  The  Hexateuch. 

Early  in  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  the  last  step  in  the 
literary  growth  of  the  j&rst  six  books  of  the  Bible,  as 
we  know  them  now,  must  have  been  taken,  the  combina- 
tion of  the  priestly  history  and  the  priestly  legislation 
with  the  prophetic  histories  and  the  Deuteronomic 
legislation.  Each  was  highly  valued  by  the  people  as 
sacred  literature.  On  the  basis  of  the  priestly  outHne 
of  history  the  scribes  fitted  in  the  prophetical  material, 
making  only  the  most  necessary  adjustments.  Hence 
the  careful  reader  of  the  Hexateuch  finds  it  to  be  a 
curious  mosaic  of  varied  material,  some  primitive, 
some  matured.  It  is  not  a  uniformly  written  narrative 
of  events  from  the  creation  to  the  days  of  the  judges, 
but  a  collection  of  data,  historical,  religious,  legal.  It 
reflects  all  stages  of  religious  growth  and  appeals  to  all 
kinds  of  religious  need.  When  read  with  its  strange 
hterary  history  in  mind,  the  Hexateuch  stands  out  as 
a  wonderful  achievement,  amply  justifying  the  verdict 
of  a  unity  wrought  out  of  remarkable  variety. 

15.  The  Character  and  Significance  of  Judaism. 
The   substitution   of   ritualism   for   religious   spon- 
taneity replaced  the  disorders  of  the  earher  religious 
life  by  a  systematized  worship  marked  by  dignity,  im- 
pressiveness,  and  purity.     Judaism  became,  however. 


no  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

more  than  a  machine-like  scheme  of  regularity  in  wor- 
ship directed  by  an  elaborate  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion. It  was  a  body  of  enlightened  thinking  about  God 
and  the  world  which  put  forth  a  steady  current  of  re- 
ligious idealism,  so  well  organized  and  maintained  by 
habitual  practices  that  it  could  challenge  successfully 
the  opposition  of  pagan  life  and  thought.  It  nurtured 
personal  piety  such  as  finds  glorious  expression  in  the 
Psalter,  and  it  developed  a  religiously  minded  judgment 
regarding  the  details  of  life  in  all  its  phases  which  found 
rich  expression  in  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Proverbs. 
There  were  many  counter-currents  of  thought  in  the 
Israel  of  the  fourth  century  or  so.  The  books  of  Ruth 
and  of  Jonah  express  the  protest  of  some  noble  souls 
against  the  excessive  application  of  the  idea  of  exclu- 
siveness.  Judaism  did  not  deaden  the  popular  mind 
and  heart,  but  stimulated  it  to  joyous,  earnest  hopeful- 
ness. It  was  a  real  embodiment  of  a  thousand  years  of 
fine  religious  experience  and  thinking  organized  into  a 
system  of  procedure  which  aimed  to  exalt  God,  to  pro- 
mote holiness,  and  to  prepare  for  executing  His  will. 
It  had  both  the  advantages  and  the  dangers  of  organ- 
ized truth.  The  Jewish  people  were  now  ready  for  their 
historic  task. 


XI 


THE  TWO  AND  A  HALF  CENTURIES  OF 

GREEK  AND  MACCABEAN  RULE  IN 

PALESTINE 

I,  II  Maccabees;  Josephus  (330-63  B.  C.) 

Alexander  the  Great,  336-323 

Ptolemies  of  Egypt 
Ptolemy  I,  Soter,  323-285 
Ptolemy  II,  Philadelphus.  285-247 
Ptolemy  III,  Euergetes,  247-222 
Ptolemy  IV,  Philopator,  222-205 
Ptolemy  V,  Epiphanes,  205-182 
Ptolemy  VI,  VII,  182-146 
Egypt  annexed  by  Rome,  30  B.  C. 

Seleucids  of  Syria 
Seleucus  I,  312-279 
Antiochus  I,  Soter,  279-261 
Antiochus  II,  Theos,  261-246 
Seleucus  II,  Callinicus,  246-226 
Seleucus  III,  Cerannos,  226-223 
Antiochus  III,  the  Great,  223-187 
Seleucus  IV,  Philopator,  187-176 
Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes,  176-164 
Syria  annexed  by  Rome,  63  B.  C. 

Hasmonean  (Maccabean)   Rulers 
Mattathias 

Judas  Maccabseus,  166-161 
Jonathan,  161-142 
Simon,  142-135 
John  Hyrcanus,  135-106 
Aristobulus  I,  105-104 
Alexander  Jannseus,  104-78 
Alexandra,  78-69 
Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  69-63 
The  kingdom  annexed  to  Rome,  63 

121 


122  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

The  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  which  followed  the 
substitution  of  Persia  by  Greece  as  the  dominant  influ- 
ence in  Asia,  although  unrecorded  in  any  document 
which  is  a  part  of  the  recognized  Old  Testament,  was 
of  great  significance  to  the  Jewish  people  and  to  the 
Judaism  through  which  they  gave  expression  to  their 
views  of  God  and  of  life  as  governed  by  Him.  The 
century  or  so  during  which  that  Judaism  had  been  ad- 
justing itself  wdthin  and  without  had  resulted  in  a  docu- 
mented interpretation  of  Jewish  origins  and  history 
which  made  every  Jew  regard  himself  as  a  special  child 
of  God,  designated  to  exhibit  the  obedience  and  service 
due  from  one;  in  a  wTitten  law  which  provided  the 
proper  method  of  such  obedience;  in  glorious  traditions 
which  challenged  the  devotion  of  every  loyal  Jew;  and 
in  a  priestly  and  scribal  leadership  which  tended  to  ex- 
press racial  ambitions  along  religious  rather  than  secular 
lines.  These  decades  of  steady  obedience  to  the  Law 
had  not,  as  the  Psalter  shows,  taken  the  heart  out  of 
religious  life.  On  the  contrary,  it  preserved  and  fos- 
tered that  genuine  enthusiasm  of  devotedness  which 
found  expression  in  such  psalms  as  15,  84,  91,  or  119. 

Over  against  this  closely  organized  and  eflficient  Ju- 
daism arose  a  distinctly  different  world  force,  Hellenism, 
sure  in  time  to  become  antagonistic,  since  both  Judaism 
and  Hellenism  aimed  at  universal  recognition.  The 
story  of  this  quarter  millennium  includes  the  rise  of  Hel- 
lenism, its  influence  upon  Judaism,  the  inevitable  strug- 
gle between  them,  and  the  new  Judaism  which  emerged 
from  that  struggle,  shaped  afresh  for  the  New  Testa- 
ment age. 

I.    Alexander  the  Great  and  Hellenism. 

By  Hellenism  is  meant  the  spirit  of  Grecian  culture, 
expressed  in  Greek  institutions,  literature,  and  life,  the 


GREEK  AND  MACCABEAN  RULE   123 

most  powerful  agency  ever  known  for  the  rapid  substi- 
tution of  civilization  for  barbarism.  It  was  introduced 
into  Asia  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who,  in  a  few  years, 
not  only  conquered  the  Persian  empire  but  all  Asia  as 
far  as  the  heart  of  India.  He  and  his  successors  set- 
tled groups  of  Greeks  everywhere,  protecting  and  favor- 
ing them,  so  that  during  the  third  century  B.  C.  Httle 
centres  of  Greek  culture  spread  widely  over  Asia.  The 
Jews  in  Palestine  not  only  were  within  range  of  the 
direct  influence  of  such  great  cities  as  Alexandria  and 
Antioch,  where  they  were  welcomed  as  citizens  and 
given  much  freedom  of  life,  but  were  literally  encircled 
by  a  group  of  smaller  Greek  cities  such  as  Gadara, 
Pella,  Ptolemais,  and  Joppa.  In  his  own  country  a 
Jew  of  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.  C.  heard  the 
Greek  language  and  was  familiar  with  Greek  architec- 
ture, dress,  and  customs.  In  outside  cities  he  learned 
to  speak  Greek,  to  read  his  own  Scriptures  in  Greek,  and 
to  become  familiar  with  Greek  thought  and  hterature. 
The  effect  of  this  contact  outside  of  Judea  was  to  pro- 
duce the  liberally  minded  Jew,  entirely  faithful  to 
Judaism  yet  viewing  it  from  fresh  view-points.  In 
Judea  it  produced  two  classes,  the  orthodox,  ** pious" 
Jew,  who  shrank  from  contact  with  Greek  life  and  be- 
came more  and  more  exclusive,  and  the  Jew  who 
adopted  Greek  ways,  wholly  forgetful  of  all  except  his 
immediate  advantage.  So  marked  was  the  difference 
between  Judaism's  serious,  sacrificial  standards  and 
Hellenism's  brilhant,  joyous,  artistic  self-centredness, 
that  an  eventual  conflict  between  them  was  certain. 

2.    The  Century  of  Ptolemaic  Rule  over  Judea. 

At  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  323  B.  C, 
his  vast  empire,  after  twenty  years  of  struggle  was 
divided  up  among  those  who  had  been  his  generals. 


124  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

Egypt  came  into  the  possession  of  Ptolemy.  Western 
Asia  fell  to  Seleucus.  Each  coveted  the  Palestinian 
states.  Eventually  Ptolemy  was  confirmed  in  their 
possession  and  retained  it  until  198  B.  C.  It  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  the  apocalyptic  visions  in  Daniel 
are  a  survey  in  various  forms  of  the  Persian  and  Greek 
periods,  the  latter  being  covered  in  greatest  detail  in 
chapter  11. 

The  Medo-Persian  empire.     Daniel  8:3,  4,  20. 

Alexander  the  Great.     8  :  5-8a;  11:3. 

His  four  immediate  successors.     8 :  8b;  11:4. 

From  Ptolemy  I  and  Seleucus  I  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes.     11 :  5-20. 

The  campaigns  of  Antiochus.     11 :  21-30. 

His  attempt  to  suppress  Judaism.     11 :  31-39. 

The  prediction  of  the  sudden  end  of  his  career.     11 :  40-45. 

The  Ptolemies  were  easy-going  and  tolerant.  They 
paid  little  attention  to  dependencies  as  long  as  the 
tribute  was  promptly  paid.  The  high  priest  was  the 
responsible  head  of  the  Jewish  state.  This  combina- 
tion of  social  with  religious  responsibilities  was  the 
secret  of  many  of  the  evils  which  developed.  The  high 
priesthood  became  an  oflSce  which  carried  with  it  op- 
portunities for  extortion,  and  unworthy  persons  either 
occupied  the  office  or  wielded  its  authority  unjustly. 
This  was  the  starting-point  of  the  gradual  divergence 
between  the  priestly  rulers  who  were  politicians  and 
those  citizens  whose  chief  purpose  in  life  was  careful 
obedience  to  the  Law. 

The  general  effect  of  this  century  upon  Judaism  was 
stimulating.  Such  apocalyptical  outbursts  as  Joel, 
Isaiah  24-27,  and  Zechariah  9-14,  which  express  the 
attitude  of  Israel  "against  the  hostile  world"  and  its 
expectation  of  Jehovah's  interference  to  protect  and 
advance  His  people  probably  belong  to  this  age. 
Chronicles,   Ezra,   and  Nehemiah   were  undoubtedly 


GREEK  AND  MACCABEAN  RULE   125 

completed  not  far  from  300  B.  C.  Quite  a  variety  of 
literature,  including  additions  to  the  collection  of  psalms 
and  the  exquisite  story  of  Jonah,  bore  testimony  to  the 
vigor  and  value  of  Jewish  thinking.  But  its  character- 
istic product  during  this  age  was  the  "wisdom"  writ- 
ings. These  were  not  precisely  what  we  would  call 
philosophy:  they  were  rather  the  application  of  re- 
ligion to  life  and  its  needs.  The  book  of  Proverbs 
aimed  to  instil  the  social  virtues.  Ecclesiasticus  cov- 
ered the  same  theme  more  elaborately  and  impressively. 
Ecclesiastes  was  a  facing  of  the  problems  of  Hfe  as 
raised  by  Greek  thought  and  their  rehgious  answer. 
Job,  written  a  century  earher,  was  a  profound  treat- 
ment of  the  problem  of  suffering.  Many  psalms  dealt 
with  the  moral  order  of  the  universe.  The  universal 
answer  of  these  writings  to  the  anomaHes  and  sorrows 
of  life  was  the  goodness  and  wisdom  of  the  omniscient 
God.  Its  realization  helped  to  brace  the  devout  soul 
in  the  face  of  trial. 

3.    The  Relentless  Ambition  of  the  Seleucids. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  (198) 
Antiochus  III  of  Syria,  a  famous  and  able  leader, 
wrested  Palestine  from  the  Ptolemies.  He  then  planned 
to  conquer  Egypt,  but  was  turned  back  by  the  Romans, 
who  saw  the  danger  of  permitting  him  to  control  its 
resources.  On  that  day  was  born  a  purpose  more 
dangerous  to  Judaism  than  even  the  existence  of  so 
many  Jews  in  Judea  who  were  Greeks  at  heart.  An- 
tiochus planned  a  pan-Hellenic  league  which  should  be 
able  to  resist  or  even  to  overwhelm  the  Romans.  At 
Thermopylae  in  191  and  at  Magnesia  in  190  he  tried 
conclusions  with  Rome,  was  overwhelmingly  defeated, 
was  forced  to  yield  to  Rome  all  Asia  north  of  the  Taurus 
range  and  had  to  pay  15,000  talents.    While  plundering 


126  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

a  temple  to  get  the  money  to  pay  this  indemnity  he 
lost  his  life. 

From  Alexander  the  Great  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes.     I  Maccabees 

1 : 1-9. 
Plots  of  the  pro-Grecian  renegades.     II  Maccabees  2  : 1-4 :  6. 
The  attempt  of  Antiochus  to  abolish  Judaism.     I  Maccabees 

1 :  10-64;  II  Maccabees  4:7-7:  42. 

His  grandson,  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (175-164)  in- 
herited this  ambition.  He,  too,  was  a  remarkably 
capable  man,  but  unscrupulous  and  erratic.  It  seemed 
essential  to  his  purpose  that  Judea  as  well  as  the  rest 
of  Asia  should  "hellenize.'*  He  had  the  aid,  not  alone 
of  the  Jews  who  were  already  Greek  at  heart,  but  of 
the  high  priest,  who  was  his  appointee,  and,  being 
responsible  for  the  taxes,  was  taken  from  the  Hellen- 
istic party.  So  steadfast,  however,  was  the  great  body 
of  Jews  that  when  Antiochus  returned  from  an  in- 
vasion of  Egypt  during  which  he  had  been  ordered  by 
the  representative  of  the  Roman  Senate  to  give  up  its 
conquest  or  take  the  consequences,  he  determined  in 
his  rage  to  abolish  altogether  the  stubbornly  main- 
tained religion  or  to  wipe  out  its  adherents. 

Jerusalem  was  made  a  Greek  city,  held  by  a  gar- 
rison. All  who  refused  to  submit  were  dealt  with 
ruthlessly.  Circumcision,  the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath, 
and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  were  strictly  forbid- 
den. An  altar  to  Olympian  Zeus  was  erected  on  the 
site  of  the  altar  of  burnt  offering,  and  within  the  sacred 
precincts  a  swine^s  flesh  was  sacrificed  (168  B.  C). 
The  horror  of  all  this  to  a  devout  Jew  is  almost  un- 
imaginable. 

4.    The  Maccabean  Uprising. 

It  was  clear  to  every  one  that  the  very  existence  of 
Judaism  was  at  stake.     This  conviction  nerved  real 


GREEK  AND  MACCABEAN  RULE   127 

Jews  to  risk  all.  They  exhibited  a  heroism  unsur- 
passed in  history.  The  book  of  Daniel  was  a  priceless 
source  of  comfort  and  encouragement  to  them  by  its 
timely  stories  of  God's  support  of  those  who  were  ab- 
solutely loyal  to  Him  in  the  midst  of  trials,  and  by  its 
assurances  that  the  power  of  Antiochus,  however  exer- 
cised, was  destined  to  cease  after  a  limited  time,  and 
that  the  Kingdom  of  God  would  surely  be  established. 
The  best  history  of  those  days  is  given  in  the  books  of 
First  and  Second  Maccabees. 

The  bold  resistance  of  Mattathlas  and  his  family.     I  Maccabees 

2:1-28. 
The  successive  victories  of  Judas,  the  military  leader,  over  the 

Greek  armies.     I  Maccabees  2:29-4:35;  II  Maccabees  8:1- 

9:29. 
The  restoration  of  worship  and  maintenance  of  independence. 

I  Maccabees  4  :  36-5  :  68;  II  Maccabees  10 : 1-8. 
The  long  struggle  for  complete  independence.     I  Maccabees  6 :  1- 

13:41;  II  Maccabees  10-15. 
The  reign  of  Simon.     I  Maccabees  13 :  42-16 :  24. 

The  Jews  found  a  leadership  in  the  stalwart  family  of 
Mattathias,  a  priest,  of  the  Jewish  family  of  Hasmon, 
who  openly  slew  the  Syrian  commissioner  in  whose 
presence  he,  his  family,  and  the  villagers  of  Modein  were 
ordered  to  sacrifice  to  Zeus.  All  fled  to  the  wilderness 
and  began  a  warfare,  under  the  leadership  of  this  family, 
conducted  with  such  skill  and  energy  that  within  two 
years  four  Syrian  armies  were  defeated  and  the  fifth 
forced  to  retire  to  Antioch.  Judas  Maccabeus,  the 
Jewish  general,  was  now  free  to  enter  Jerusalem  and 
to  remove  every  trace  of  its  defilement.  In  December 
165  B.  C,  with  great  rejoicing,  the  regular  Jewish  tem- 
ple service  was  again  established. 


128  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

5.  The  Winning  of  Complete  Independence  (165-143 

B.  C). 
For  the  next,  twenty  years  the  future  of  the  Jewish 
province  was  uncertain.  The  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  were 
very  friendly.  When  the  last  faithful  high  priest, 
Onias  FV,  was  deposed  by  Antiochus  in  170  B.  C,  he 
fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  welcomed.  At  Leontopolis 
the  reigning  Ptolemy  helped  him  to  build  a  temple  like 
that  at  Jerusalem,  and  to  found  a  community  which 
exercised  much  influence  in  later  history.  But  the 
Ptolemies  had  no  political  strength.  Judea's  persistent 
foe  was  the  ruling  king  of  Syria,  whose  resources  were 
enormous.  Holding  their  own  against  him  made  the 
Hasmonean  (also  known  as  Maccabean)  rulers  of  Judea 
shrewd  diplomats  no  less  than  skilful  fighters.  Judas 
Maccabeus,  who  won  for  his  people  the  boon  of  religious 
freedom,  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Jonathan,  who, 
though  having  many  reverses,  took  advantage  in  mas- 
terly fashion  of  disputed  successions  to  the  Syrian  throne 
to  gain  one  concession  after  another,  until  at  last  he 
was  recognized  as  the  civil,  military,  and  religious  ruler 
of  an  enlarged  Judea.  The  one  remaining  brother, 
Simon,  in  many  respects  the  ablest  and  noblest  of 
all,  succeeded  Jonathan.  Demetrius  II  of  Syria,  in 
return  for  his  support,  gave  Judea  complete  indepen- 
dence. 

6.  The  Maccabean  Kingdom  (143-63  B.  C). 

The  next  eighty  years  were  of  great  importance  to 
Judaism.  Josephus  relates  their  events  in  his  "Wars" 
and  "Antiquities."  The  reign  of  Simon  was  on  the 
whole  peaceful  and  prosperous.  He  refrained  from 
calling  himself  a  king,  but  was  a  real  sovereign,  de- 
voted to  the  interests  of  his  people.  In  him  the  theo- 
cratic ideal  seemed  a  reality,  so  that  his  grateful  sub- 


GREEK  AND  MACCABEAN  RULE   129 

jects  proclaimed  him  high  priest  and  made  the  office 
hereditary  in  the  Hasmonean  family.  John  Hyrcanus, 
his  son  and  successor  (135-105  B.  C.)  considerably  en- 
larged his  dominions  by  conquering  and  annexing  Perea, 
Samaria,  and  Idumea.  He  used  the  spoil  to  beautify 
and  strengthen  Jerusalem.  So  great  a  warrior  was 
manifestly  a  poor  high  priest.  The  strictly  minded 
Pharisees,  both  many  and  influential,  demanded  his 
resignation  of  the  sacred  office.  This  angered  him, 
made  him  a  supporter  of  the  liberalists,  and  thus  helped 
to  emphasize  the  religious  differences  of  the  day.  The 
next  king,  Aristobulus,  was  Greek  in  sympathy.  After 
a  year's  reign  he  was  succeeded  by  a  brother,  Alexander 
Jannseus  (104-78  B.  C),  a  despotic,  revengeful,  vicious 
man,  very  offensive  as  a  high  priest  to  the  religiously 
minded  of  his  people.  When  they  exhibited  their  feel- 
ing he  ordered  a  massacre.  The  Pharisaic  partisans 
revolted  but  were  cruelly  put  down.  He  enlarged  his 
dominions  and  gained  some  fictitious  glory,  yet  brought 
on  several  deplorable  results.  The  most  dependable 
Judeans  became  hostile  to  the  dynasty;  the  rivalry  be- 
tween the  popular  parties  became  bitter,  and  the  re- 
sources of  his  kingdom  were  drained.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Alexandra,  his  wife  (78-69),  who  favored 
the  Pharisees.  They  misused  their  influence  by  op- 
pressing their  rivals.  Her  reign  was,  however,  a 
"golden"  period  for  Judaism.  The  synagogue  became 
an  elementary  school  and  scribes  the  teachers  of  the 
youth.  The  yearly  Temple  tax  for  Jews  everywhere 
was  instituted.  All  Judaism  was  drawn  together.  At 
her  death  a  civil  strife  arose  between  her  two  sons, 
Hyrcanus  II  and  Aristobulus  II.  This  dragged  on 
with  varying  fortune  until  63  B.  C,  when  Pompey,  the 
Roman  general,  solved  the  dispute  as  arbiter  by  annex- 
ing the  kingdom  to  Rome. 


130  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

7.    Its  Importance  for  Judaism. 

These  eighty  years  of  Jewish  independence  witnessed 
every  sort  of  conduct,  noble  and  treacherous,  supremely 
devoted  and  totally  unreligious,  progressive  and  re- 
actionary. Only  for  brief  periods  was  there  a  real 
union  of  political  and  religious  wisdom.  Nevertheless 
the  period  was  of  great  importance  to  Judaism.  It 
gave  Jews  everywhere  a  fresh  sense  of  racial  unity. 
Jerusalem  became  the  one  beloved  centre  and  symbol 
of  their  religious  faith.  The  boundaries  of  Jewish  in- 
fluence were  greatly  enlarged :  Jewish  culture  broadened. 
The  whole  Old  Testament  was  probably  completed  not 
later  than  this  period.  Its  translation  into  Greek  was 
finished.  Not  a  little  literature  which  we  know  chiefly 
by  name  appeared.  Judaism  expressed  itself  vigor- 
ously. 

The  most  important  result  of  independence  was  the 
development  of  the  great  parties,  the  Pharisees  and 
the  Sadducees,  those  who  supremely  honored  the  Law 
and  those  who  were  friendly  to  Greek  culture  and  out- 
side influences.  The  Pharisees  were  a  religious  sect, 
intent  on  a  scrupulous  obedience  of  the  Law,  caring 
for  nothing  else.  Their  simple  devotedness  won  them 
popular  influence.  The  Sadducees  grew  out  of  the 
circle  of  worldly-minded  priests.  They  held  the  Tem- 
ple and  its  services  sacred,  but  they  were  aristocratic 
politicians,  believing  in  worldly- wise  policies.  Between 
the  two  parties  developed  a  bitter  antagonism.  The 
scribes,  the  interpreters  and  authoritative  teachers  of 
the  Law,  were  naturally  of  Pharisaic  sympathies.  The 
great  mass  of  the  people  had  an  immense  respect  for 
the  Pharisees,  but  no  idea  of  imitating  their  scrupu- 
lousness. The  activity  of  these  parties  was  not  affected 
by  the  loss  of  independence. 


GREEK  AND  IMACCABEAN  RULE      131 

8.    The  Jewish  People  (63  A.  D.). 

When  the  Hasmonean  kingdom  ended,  the  Old  Tes- 
tament era  ended  also.  Under  Roman  auspices  a  new 
age  dawned.  For  a  thousand  years,  ever  since  the 
days  of  David,  the  Jewish  people  had  been  developing 
a  peculiar  identity  which  not  only  made  them  a  marked 
race,  but  also  gave  them  a  distinctive  influence  in  his- 
tory. It  remains  to  sum  up  what  they  had  become. 
When  Pompey  annexed  Judea  he  took  over  more  than 
a  small  province  with  its  inhabitants.  He  assumed 
political  control  of  a  vast  religious  brotherhood,  scat- 
tered over  the  world  of  his  day,  linked  together  by 
loyalties  far  keener  and  deeper  than  those  of  dynasty 
or  race.  Israel  was  not  a  theory  but  a  fact.  Jerusalem 
and  its  temple  were  symbols  of  a  religious  devotedness 
that  impressed  the  world  by  its  reahty  and  persistence. 
Good  citizens  wherever  they  lived,  the  Jews  main- 
tained their  careful  adherence  to  their  own  ways  in  a 
society  of  their  own.  The  synagogue,  the  written  law, 
the  other  Scriptures,  the  scribal  leadership,  wrought 
them  into  a  religious  unity  which  no  other  people  knew. 
They  had  been  deprived  of  nationality,  but  confirmed 
in  something  more  permanent.  As  a  nation  pure  and 
simple  their  career  was  of  minor  significance;  as  a  factor 
in  bringing  the  world  of  the  Greek  period  face  to  face 
with  true  ideas  of  God,  man,  and  the  universe,  they 
had  attained  supreme  significance. 


XII 


A   GENERAL  SURVEY  OF   OLD  TESTAMENT 
HISTORY 

The  popular  view  of  Old  Testament  history  is  often 
colored  by  a  feeling  of  racial  prejudice,  or  by  a  yet 
more  potent  sense  of  religious  fervor.  It  is  judged  to 
be  the  record  of  a  great  failure  nationally,  or  of  a 
progress  so  sacred  as  to  be  beyond  critical  inspection. 
The  student  of  that  history  may  be  affected  by  either 
attitude,  yet  realizes  that  the  Hebrew  people,  whatever 
their  failings,  played  a  recognizable  and  most  important 
part  in  the  development  of  the  world  of  to-day.  They 
laid  the  basis  on  which  Christianity  was  reared  and 
which  furnished  two  other  persistent  religious  faiths 
with  that  which  gave  them  vitality.  A  survey  of  the 
growth  which  enabled  the  Hebrews  to  render  this  great 
and  unique  service  is  more  than  a  historical  advantage: 
it  is  a  religious  experience.  The  Hebrews  staked  their 
all  on  fidelity  to  religious  ideals.  They  were  pioneers 
in  applying  the  principles  of  Divine  and  human  fellov/- 
ship  to  every-day  life.  Their  history  thrills  one  with 
the  spirit  of  idealization  and  promotes  the  art  of  living 
rightly. 

I.    How  Old  Testament  History  Resembles  All  Other 
History. 
The  history  of  the  Hebrew  people  is  a  part  of  the 
history  of  the  world.     It  must  be  judged  in  fair  accor- 
dance with  established  principles  of  historical  criticism. 

132 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  133 

The  Hebrews  learned,  as  all  other  peoples  have  done, 
through  experience,  both  bitter  and  happy.  They 
were  not  kept  from  making  serious  errors  of  judgment. 
They  were  deeply  disappointed  over  what  seemed  to  be 
their  own  failures.  Yet  they  discovered  their  own 
genius  and  gave  it  play.  The  Hebrews  were  not  pup- 
pets even  in  the  hand  of  God,  but  a  people  which  He 
found  useful  for  His  larger  purposes. 

Viewed  as  secular  history,  that  of  the  Hebrew  people 
is  not  without  merit.  Despite  the  fortimes  which  en- 
tirely extinguished  other  smaller  peoples  of  their  age, 
the  Hebrews  persisted  and  discovered  a  type  of  life 
which  could  flourish.  With  others  the  loss  of  accus- 
tomed conditions  was  the  loss  of  nationalism,  and  later 
of  identity:  the  Hebrews  made  their  anticipated  mis- 
fortunes a  cause  for  readjustments  which  preserved  and 
heightened  their  own  national  genius. 

Viewed  from  the  mere  standpoint  of  national  great- 
ness, the  history  of  the  Hebrews  is  meagre.  As  a  na- 
tion they  held  a  relatively  unimportant  place.  They 
came  to  their  greatest  political  strength  by  reason  of 
the  inaction  of  the  greater  powers  in  the  world  of  their 
day  and  at  the  very  peak  of  their  prosperity  and  influ- 
ence they  succumbed  to  the  newly  aggressive  Assyrian 
conqueror,  knowing  no  real  independence  thereafter 
for  six  hundred  years.  Intellectually  they  borrowed 
as  much  as  they  gave.  Yet  they  were  quick  and  keen 
in  adapting  to  their  own  purposes  the  culture  of  the  na- 
tions with  which  they  had  contact  and  in  holding  a 
steady  progress  toward  the  great  goal  achieved,  one 
none  the  less  real  because  it  was  obscurely  approached. 

2.    Its  Uniqueness. 

The  outstanding  glory  of  the  Hebrew  people  is  their 
definite  contribution  to  the  clear  religious  thinking  of 


134  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

mankind.  In  four  centuries  following  the  days  of 
Amos,  they  developed  teachings  regarding  God,  human- 
kind, the  world,  and  their  right  relationships  which 
shape  the  best  thinking  of  the  world  of  to-day.  This 
teaching  gave  expression  to  ideals  as  well  as  duties.  It 
reached  a  climax  in  the  teaching  that  the  highest  use 
of  life  and  power  is  the  sacrificial  not  the  selfish  use. 
It  is  the  justification  for  regarding  them  as  one  of  the 
truly  creative  peoples  of  the  world  to  whom  it  stands 
forever  indebted. 

The  Hebrews  themselves  believed  that  they  were 
God's  peculiar  people,  selected  out  of  all  other  nations 
to  serve  Him  and  to  declare  His  will.  They  often  over- 
emphasized their  exceptional  place  in  God's  esteem. 
However,  such  a  broad-minded  man  as  the  author  of 
the  book  of  Jonah  rebuked  severely  such  an  attitude, 
showing  that  God's  love  is  universal.  Isaiah  40-55 
declared  that  their  entire  experience  from  the  days  of 
Abraham  had  been  a  Divinely  guided  course  of  train- 
ing which  fitted  them  to  declare  God's  true  character 
and  purpose  to  the  world,  so  that  He  should  stand  re- 
vealed in  His  full  glory  and  goodness,  and  further  de- 
clared that  this  mtnessing  was  to  be  their  sacrificial 
task.  Inspired  by  such  leaders,  the  Hebrew-Jewish 
people  recovered  from  the  collapse  of  what  had  been 
left  of  their  sovereignty  and  devoted  their  creative  en- 
ergies to  the  advancement  of  the  knowledge  of  God  in 
the  world.  Whether  Judaism  was  more  or  less  worth 
while  than  Prophetism  is  a  matter  for  discussion.  It 
was,  at  any  rate,  an  intentional  improvement. 

The  Hebrews  not  only  gave  the  world  a  vision  of  the 
Divine  in  life:  they  supported  it  by  the  Scriptures. 
The  Old  Testament  was  a  definite  means  of  broad  en- 
lightenment, especially  after  it  had  been  rendered  into 
Greek.     Its  outstanding  quality  needed  no  interpreter, 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  135 

although  its  range  of  ideas  demanded  study.  In  archi- 
tecture, in  the  fine  arts,  and  in  the  correlated  realms  of 
life  the  Hebrews  shared  no  unusual  genius.  But  in 
literature  and  religion  they  left  the  world  their  debtor. 
The  adequate  interpretation  of  God  as  a  moral  Being, 
the  exhibit  of  religion  applied  to  life  and  the  Scriptures 
were  their  world-uniting  products. 

3.    Its  Tuming-Points. 

The  one  who  reviews  the  thousand  years  from  Moses 
to  Roman  rule  recognizes  certain  dates  which  serve  as 
turning-points  in  that  gradual  growth. 

The  entrance  into  Canaan.     About  1150  B.  C. 
The  disruption  of  Solomon's  kingdom.     About  937  B.  C. 
The  appearance  of  the  x\ssyrian  as  a  foreign  yet  overmastering  in- 
fluence in  Hebrew  life.     About  740  B.  C. 
The  Babylonian  exile.     587  B.  C. 
The  establishment  of  Judaism.     About  400  B.  C. 

With  the  entrance  into  Canaan  came  a  radical  change 
in  the  conditions  which  shaped  Hebrew  life.  They  ex- 
changed as  a  people  a  nomadic,  shepherd  Hfe  for  a  set- 
tled, agricultural  life.  With  the  disruption  two  con- 
tending elements  in  the  life  of  the  people,  each  ^-ith  its 
own  value,  gained  greater  freedom  of  expression.  The 
Northern  kingdom,  however  erratic  and  brief,  gave 
opportunity  for  the  development  of  what  was  most 
creative  in  Hebrew  life.  When  the  predatory  Assyrian 
cast  a  baleful  shadow  across  Hebrew  statesmanship, 
the  real  expression  of  Hebrew  genius  began.  With  the 
exile  to  Babylonia  and  elsewhere  another  radical  and 
permanent  change  in  Jewish  fortunes  took  place.  They 
became  essentially  a  cosmopolitan  people,  engaged  for 
the  most  part  in  business.  With  the  adoption  at  Jeru- 
salem of  the  Law  as  presented  by  Ezra  the  scribe,  the 
Jewish   people  became   a  congregation   or   a   church. 


4ft 


136  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

These  ^five  turning-points  demarcate  the  great  eras  of 
growth  which  we  must  recognize. 

4.    The  Significant  Eras. 

The  natural  periods  of  growth  under  which  the  stu- 
dent may  wisely  seek  to  organize  the  whole  range  of 
Hebrew-Jewish  history  are  indicated  in  the  appendix. 
The  following  table  aims  only  to  indicate  the  distinctive 
eras  of  development,  several  of  which  should  be  sub- 
divided for  purposes  of  closer  study. 

The  gradual  attainment  of  nationalization  and  a  sense  of  com- 
petency.    Until  about  750  B.  C. 

The  gradual  formulation  of  religion  on  a  moral  and  spiritual  basis. 
From  750  to  about  550  B.  C. 

The  organization  of  religion  so  as  to  be  in  complete  control  of  life. 
550  to  400  B.  C. 

The  proclamation  of  that  religion  through  the  dispersion. 
400  B.  C.  onward. 

From  the  days  of  Moses  to  the  Assyrian^age,  the  He- 
brews were  becoming  a  distinctive  people,  trained 
through  varied  exp>erience  to  understand  life.  Each 
one  of  the  five  centuries  were  contributory  to  this 
broadening  and  should  be  viewed  accordingly.  For  the 
next  two  centuries  the  Assyrian  overlordship  made 
their  political  status  stationary.  As  a  people  they 
continued  to  develop  culturally  and  socially,  but  their 
genius  expressed  itself  through  the  prophets  from  Amos 
to  Ezekiel  and  his  great  contemporary,  Jeremiah.  The 
real  work  of  these  two  centuries  was  the  development 
of  rehgion  on  the  true  and  permanent  basis  which  the 
world  has  accepted.  These  centuries  represent  the 
Hebrews  at  their  best. 

During  and  following  the  exile  with  the  continuing 
political  hopelessness  a  new  leadership  with  a  new  ob- 
jective prevailed.  The  task  to  which  the  scribes  set 
themselves  was  that  of  organizing  religious  life  com- 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  137 

pletely,  so  that  its  ideals  should  be  exactly  fulfilled. 
With  this  accomplished  about  400  B.  C,  Judaism  set 
itself  everywhere  to  the  task  of  maintaining  these 
ideals  and  thus  was,  often  unconsciously,  the  means  of 
proclaiming  them  abroad. 

5.    Its  Leadership. 

The  Hebrew- Jewish  people  cannot  be  fully  under- 
stood without  some  comprehension  of  the  organized 
groups  which  influenced  their  social,  intellectual,  and 
religious  development.  Although  a  strongly  demo- 
cratic people,  they  accepted  royalty  with  its  burdens 
and  values.  Some  of  the  kings  like  David,  Jehoshaphat, 
Jeroboam  II,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah  were  real  leaders, 
primarily  thoughtful  for  their  people  and  glad  to  do 
them  good.  But  the  influences  which  more  definitely 
shaped  the  popular  life  came  from  four  groups:  the 
prophets,  the  priesthood,  the  scribes,  and  the  wise  men. 

Greatest  of  these  were  the  prophets,  who  interpreted 
the  national  life  in  terms  of  righteousness  and  faith, 
and  insisted  on  worthy  ideals  in  public  and  private  life. 
They  really  set  the  national  standards  and  caused 
Israel  to  be  an  original  contributor  to  the  world's  good. 
Only  second  in  importance  and  far  greater  in  steady 
influence  was  the  priesthood,  which  came  into  promi- 
nence and  independence  along  with  the  prophets  and 
eventually  gained  entire  control  of  the  people.  They 
expressed  religion  in  an  orderly  programme  to  be  car- 
ried out  with  unceasing  care.  From  their  ranks  devel- 
oped the  scribes  during  the  exile,  who  gave  themselves  to 
the  formulation  into  specific  ordinances  of  the  religious 
obligations  of  the  individual  and  of  the  community. 

But  the  prophet  was  naturally  an  idealist;  the  priest 
was  keen  to  maintain  exact  conformity  to  tradition. 
The  wise  men  were  needed  in  order  that  the  many- 


138  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

sided  applications  of  religious  principles  to  the  prac- 
tical problems  of  life  might  be  considered. 

The  priesthood  played  a  part  in  the  national  life  as 
early  as  the  days  of  David;  the  prophets  rendered  their 
supreme  service  during  the  two  centuries  including  the 
exile;  the  scribes  and  wise  men  became  of  value  with 
the  post-exilic  age.  Each  contributed  a  real  share  of 
the  gift  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  world. 

6.    Its  Outstanding  Personalities. 

History  gains  its  perennial  interest  through  those 
unusual  personalities  through  whose  influence  the 
world  advances.  Such  men  are  few  and  rare.  Hebrew 
history  has  its  fair  share  of  them  from  Moses  the  in- 
troducer of  that  which  distinguished  the  Hebrews  from 
other  peoples  like  them,  one  of  the  great  figures  in  his- 
tory, to  Nehemiah,  the  favorite  of  Artaxerxes,  ready 
to  exchange  the  life  of  an  influential  courtier  for  the 
arduous  tasks  of  community  reform.  David  was  an- 
other great  personality,  alike  in  his  virtues  and  failings. 
He  was  a  man  of  vision,  not,  like  Solomon,  over- 
estimating the  real  place  and  power  of  his  people,  but 
forecasting  their  growth  and  establishing  its  sound 
basis.  Elijah  was  a  great  original  character,  who  had 
but  one  idea,  yet  it  brought  the  nation  back  to  a  sense 
of  its  rightful  allegiance  to  God.  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  and  the  nameless  Isaiah  40-55  had  each 
a  creative  religious  genius  which  made  a  contribution 
to  the  world's  religious  thinking.  Josiah  might  have 
been  a  great  leader  in  time.  The  recognition  of  these 
in  no  sense  prevents  the  recognition  of  the  vastly  larger 
number  of  splendid  souls  who  in  less  memorable  fashion 
did  their  duty  nobly.  Hebrew  history  abounds  in  the 
mention  of  men  and  women  like  Deborah  the  brave 
leader,  Samuel  the  shrewd  and  sane  guide  of  his  people. 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY  139 

Jonathan  the  fine-spirited  friend  of  David,  Joab  his 
sturdy  and  loyal  henchman,  and  very  many  others 
who  played  their  respective  parts  in  their  own  way  yet 
with  zeal  and  courage.  The  imagination  fails  to  pic- 
ture the  large  groups  of  devoted  supporters  who,  with- 
out need  of  fame,  stood  together  in  support  of  the 
prophets  and  the  scribes  and  of  other  leaders. 

7.    The  Literature. 

It  is  evident  to  a  dispassionate  student  that  the  He- 
brews were  in  no  position  to  produce  literature  before 
David's  day.  They  had  records  of  various  sorts,  and 
abundant  traditions,  but  no  literary  class.  From  ap- 
proximately 1000  B.  C.  on,  however,  there  were  those 
available  who  had  the  training  and  the  leisure  for  liter- 
ary development.  How  rapidly  it  began  to  appear  is 
a  matter  of  uncertainty.  Most  of  the  historical  and 
prophetic  literature  found  in  the  Old  Testament  gives 
evidence  of  repeated  editing,  indicating  a  hterary  his- 
tory. The  books  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings  were 
given  their  present  form  in  the  fifth  century  or  so,  but 
the  former  began  with  folk  stories  five  hundred  years 
earlier.  The  real  literary  age  of  the  Hebrew  people  was 
after  the  exile,  when  they  laid  far  greater  stress  upon 
literature  as  a  potent  means  of  promoting  ideas  and 
programmes.  They  never  ceased  to  use  it  freely  during 
the  next  six  hundred  years.  The  last  Old  Testament 
historical  record  is  to  be  dated  about  400  B.  C.  The 
last  bit  of  writing  in  the  Old  Testament  may  date  in  the 
third  or  second  century  B.  C.  The  apocryphal  books 
are  later  still.  But  outside  of  all  these  is  the  volume 
of  extra-Biblical  apocalyptic  literature  which  began  to 
appear  with  the  earliest  portion  of  the  book  of  Enoch 
in  the  second  century  B.  C. 

The  quality  of  the  literature  which  has  been  pre- 


140  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY 

served  in  the  Old  Testament  requires  no  attestation. 
It  challenges  comparison  with  any  other  pre-Christian 
literature.  As  an  historical  record  the  books  of  Samuel 
set  a  standard  which  eminent  historians  have  recog- 
nized. The  book  of  Job  is  admittedly  a  world  classic. 
The  Psalter  is  the  world's  hymnal  and  book  of  comfort. 
The  prophetic  writings  set  a  standard  of  spiritual  in- 
terpretation which  no  other  religious  literature  reaches. 
Those  who  fail  to  recognize  the  lasting  merit  of  the  Old 
Testament  writings  are  those  who  have  not  fitted  them- 
selves to  have  a  judgment. 

8.    Israel's  Permanent  Contributions  to  the  World, 

It  is  fair  to  ask,  What  is  the  verdict  of  a  competent 
historian  concerning  the  Hebrew- Jewish  people? 
Viewed  in  the  light  of  universal  history,  how  do  they 
rank?  Surely  a  people  whose  greatest  territory  was 
no  larger  than  a  small  North  American  state,  who 
maintained  their  independence  only  when  a  great 
power  was  occupied  elsewhere,  could  not  stand  in  the 
first  rank.  It  must  be  remembered  that  creativeness 
does  not  go  along  with  size.  The  immortal  literature 
of  Greece  emanated  from  a  single  city-state,  during  one 
short  period  of  free  creativeness. 

The  Hebrew-Jewish  people  made  at  least  three  great 
contributions  to  the  world:  (1)  It  developed  a  sound 
scheme  of  thinking  about  God,  man,  the  universe,  and 
their  relations,  which  all  sane  Christian  peoples  accept. 
(2)  It  exhibited  after  the  exile  a  type  of  religious  life 
based  on  principles  which  impressed  the  world  then 
and  since  and  standardized  serious  life.  (3)  It  left  to 
the  world  in  the  Old  Testament  a  rich  legacy,  the  value 
of  which  is  ever  increasing.  Through  these  contribu- 
tions alone  the  Hebrews  stand  justified  as  one  of  the 
world's  great  creative  peoples. 


APPENDIX 


OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTORY  BY  ITS 
NATURAL  PERIODS 

The  Old  Testament,  as  viewed  by  a  student,  com- 
prises not  merely  the  thirty-nine  books  included  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  and  in  the  Enghsh  Bible,  but  also  four- 
teen more,  known  as  the  Apocrypha,  found  in  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin  versions,  and  recognized  as  sacred 
scripture  by  the  Orthodox  Greek  Cathohc  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Churches.  These  added  books  carry 
Old  Testament  history  down  into  the  Maccabean  age. 

The  Old  Testament  records  the  remarkable  growth 
of  the  Hebrew  people  from  a  stage  of  extreme  social 
and  religious  simphcity  of  life,  when  it  ranked  as  one 
of  the  least  important  peoples,  to  a  maturity  of  experi- 
ence, culture,  and  rehgious  insight  which  made  it  the 
world's  instructor  in  true  religion.  The  growth  thus 
recorded  was  alike  political,  social,  cultural,  and  re- 
ligious. An  appreciation  of  its  stages  unlocks  the 
secrets  of  the  Old  Testament. 

^The  outhne  given  below  seeks  to  express  this  growth 
in  natural  periods,  each  one  deserving  a  careful,  thor- 
ough study  by  itself  and  in  its  relation  to  the  whole 
sweep  of  the  history  and  a  summarizing  of  the  events, 
the  fine  leadership,  and  the  achievements  which  char- 
acterized it. 

1.     The  Beginnings  of  Human  History  as  Viewed 
Through  Hebrew  Racial  Traditions  (Genesis 

1-11). 

143 


144  APPENDIX 

2.  The  Gradual  Emergence  of  the  Hebrew  Clans 

into  History.  About  2000-1200  B.  C.  (Gen- 
esis 12-50). 

3.  The  Half  Century  of  Mosaic  Leadership  and 

Organization.  About  1200-1150  B.  C.  (Ex- 
odus-Deuteronomy passim), 

4.  The  Century  of  the  Conquest  and  Gradual  In- 

corporation of  the  Canaanites  and  of  the 
Adoption  of  Many  of  Their  ReUgious  Habits. 
About  1150-1050  B.  C.  (Joshua,  Judges). 

5.  The  Century  of  Rapid  Nationalization  Estab- 

lishing Jerusalem  as  a  Political,  Cultural,  and 
Religious  Centre.  1050-937  B.C.  (I,  II 
Samuel;  I  Kings  1-11). 

6.  The  Century  When  the  Divided  Kingdoms  Met 

the  Insidious  Attack  of  Phoenician  Baalism 
by  a  Reaffirmation  of  Exclusive  Loyalty 
to  Jehovah.  937-842  B.C.  (I  Kings 
12-11  Kings  10;  II  Chronicles  10:1-22:9). 

7.  The  Century  in  Which,  after  Serious  Reverses, 

the  Peak  of  Prosperity  and  Contented  Self- 
Consciousness  Was  Reached  by  Both  Israel 
andJudah.  842-740  B.C.  (II  Kings  10:  28- 
15:  7;  II  Chronicles  22:  10-26:  23). 

8.  The  Half  Century  of  Israel's  Collapse  and  of 

the  Gradual  Assyrian  Conquest  of  Judah, 
with  the  Reinterpretation  by  the  First  Four 
Prophets  of  Religion  as  Essentially  Ethical 
and  Spiritual.  740-686  B.C.  (II  Kings 
15-20;  II  Chronicles  27-32). 

9.  The  HaK  Century  of  Unquestioned  Assyrian 

Dominance,  with  Its  Popularization  in  Judah 
of  Foreign  Religious  Customs  and  of  an  Anti- 
Prophetic  Spirit.  686-639  B.  C.  (II  Kings 
21;  II  Chronicles  33). 


APPENDIX  145 

10.  The  Half  Century  of  Religious  Reform  and  Re- 

organization followed  by  Rapid  National 
Decline,  with  the  Emphasis  by  the  Second 
Group  of  Prophets  upon  the  Spiritual  and 
the  Individual  Elements  in  Rehgion.  639- 
586  B.  C.  (II  Kings  22-25;  II  Chronicles  34- 
36;  Jeremiah  37-39). 

11.  The  HaK  Century  of  Exile  in  Babylonia,  with 

Its  Social  Readjustments,  Its  Missionary 
Interpretation  of  Rehgion,  and  Its  Emphasis 
upon  Ordered  Rehgious  Life.     586-538  B.  C. 

12.  The  Building  of  the  Second  Temple  and  Its 

Re-establishment  as  Central  in  Jewish  Re- 
ligious Life.     538-516  B.  C.  (Ezra  1-6). 

13.  The  Rehabilitation  of  Jerusalem  and  Establish- 

ment of  Judaism  as  the  Accepted  Institu- 
tional Scheme  of  Jewish  Rehgious  and  Social 
Life.     516-330  B.  C.  (Ezra  6-10;  Nehemiah). 

14.  Judaism's  Contact  with  Aggressive  Hellenism; 

Her  Inevitable  and  Finally  Successful  Strug- 
gle for  Rehgious  and  Pohtical  Freedom. 
330-143  B.  C.  (I,  II  Maccabees). 

15.  The  Maccabean  Kingdom  with  Its  Inner  De- 

velopment of  Judaism,  Its  Quickening  of 
World-wide  Jewish  Loyalty,  and  Its  Growing 
Messianism.     143-63  B.  C.  (Josephus). 

Jewish  history  did  not  come  to  a  close  wdth  63  B.  C, 
but  the  overlordship  of  Rome  which  began  then  should 
be  classified  with  New  Testament  history.  It  will  be 
adequately  treated  in  "Jesus  and  His  Teachings,"  the 
third  volume  in  this  series. 


ir 

GENERAL  REFERENCE  LITERATURE  FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

This  volume  has  been  planned  to  lay  a  sound,  broad 
foundation  for  a  life-long  study  of  Old  Testament  His- 
tory. It  is  an  introduction  to  the  subject,  not  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  more  thorough  and  detailed  treatment 
to  be  found  in  a  larger  history.  Its  success,  in  fact, 
will  be  gauged  by  its  power  to  kindle  in  the  mind  of  the 
student  such  an  interest  in  the  historical  development 
of  the  Hebrew  people  that  he  will  crave  a  more  detailed 
mastery  of  many  phases  of  this  important  and  richly 
rewarding  subject.  Some  of  the  books  which  should  be- 
come known  to  one  who  has  made  use  of  this  volume 
are  hereinafter  mentioned.  No  attempt,  however,  has 
been  made  to  append  an  exhaustive  bibliography.  The 
list  covers  only  such  reference  books  as  the  average 
student  should  use.  Whoever  consults  them  will  find 
mentioned  by  them  a  still  wider  range  of  reference 
literature.  Each  real  student  tends  to  develop  his  own 
reference  library  as  he  advances  in  an  understanding 
of  the  Bible. 

Every  student  of  the  Old  Testament  should  plan  to 
own,  as  soon  as  possible,  a  good  Bible  dictionary,  a 
concordance,  an  atlas,  some  good  commentaries,  one 
or  two  larger  Old  Testament  histories  and  a  good  his- 
tory of  Old  Testament  literature.  The  suggestions 
which  follow  are  intended  to  assist  him  in  selecting  the 
books  which  will  make  a  nucleus  for  his  working 
library. 

146 


APPENDIX  147 

There  are  three  good  Bible  dictionaries,  each  in  one 
volume.  The  latest  and  best  is  Hastings'  One  Volume 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (Scribner's).  That  by  J.  D. 
Davis  (any  denominational  bookstore)  is  very  con- 
densed, but  it  answers  all  questions  of  fact;  the  other, 
the  Jacobus  Standard  Bible  Dictionary  (Funk  and 
Wagnalls),  is  shghtly  more  conservative  in  its  judg- 
ments than  Hastings'.  There  are  two  concordances 
which  are  of  handy  size,  Cruden's  and  Walker's.  The 
former  is  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  but  is  less  complete 
than  Walker's  Comprehensive  Concordance  (all  re- 
ligious bookstores).  For  a  large  Bible  Atlas  George 
Adam  Smith's  "Atlas  of  the  Historical  Geography  of 
the  Holy  Land"  is  the  best  available.  It  is  quite  ex- 
pensive. For  all  practical  purposes  MacCoun's  Atlas 
(Revell)  is  sufficient. 

There  are  three  reliable  and  useful  Old  Testament 
Histories  in  one  volume,  the  author's  "History  of  the 
Hebrews"  (Scribner's)  and  "Old  Testament  History," 
by  Professor  Ismar  J.  Peritz  (Methodist  Book  Concern), 
while  George  Adam  Smith's  "Jerusalem,"  vol.  II,  is 
virtually  a  survey  of  the  history  in  his  fascinating  style. 
Professor  Kent's  "The  Historical  Bible,"  four  volumes 
covering  the  Old  Testament  (Scribner's),  covers  the 
same  ground  in  much  greater  detail.  On  Old  Testament 
Hterature  valuable  books  to  own  are  Professor  Henry 
T.  Fowler's  "A  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient 
Israel"  (Macmillan),  and  Professor  J.  E.  McFadyen's 
"Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament"  (London,  Hod- 
der).  For  the  important  prophetical  material  of  the 
Old  Testament  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  second 
volume  of  this  series,  entitled  "Old  Testament  Proph- 
ecy" (Scribner's)  or  to  the  two  volumes  on  the  Prophets 
in  the  Messages  of  the  Bible  series  (Scribner's).  A  re- 
cent and  valuable  volume  which  reviews  the  relation 


148  APPENDIX 

of  prophecy  to  national  and  world  problems  is  Knud- 
son's  "The  Prophetic  Movement  in  Israel"  (Methodist 
Book  Concern). 

Of  commentaries  there  are  many.  No  series  is  ever 
of  even  excellence.  Some  of  its  volumes  will  be  far  pref- 
erable to  others.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  when- 
ever a  student  desires  a  learned,  minutely  adequate  com- 
mentary on  a  BibUcal  book,  he  is  safe  in  turning  to  the 
International  Critical  Commentary  series  (Scribner*s). 
For  a  reliable  yet  convenient  commentary  he  may  con- 
sult one  of  the  volumes  of  the  Cambridge  Bible  series 
(University  Press).  For  a  terse  yet  rather  satisfying 
and  well-edited  help  he  is  generally  justified  in  getting 
one  of  the  New  Century  Bible  series  (Frowde).  There 
are  two  excellent  one-volume  commentaries  on  the  whole 
Bible.  Dummelow,  "The  One  Volume  Bible  Com- 
mentary" (Macmillan)  is  quite  useful.  Peake's  "A 
Commentary  on  the  Bible"  (Nelson)  is  on  the  whole 
the  best  compact  commentary  in  print.  It  reflects  the 
historical  view-point  throughout.  Its  comprehensive 
index  makes  it  a  real  thesaurus  of  information.  Specific 
volumes  relating  to  particular  books  or  themes  will  be 
mentioned  below  in  the  references  for  each  study. 


Ill 


REFERENCE  LITERATURE  FOR  EACH 
STUDY 

The  first  five  references  in  each  section  will  be  to  the 
appropriate  pages  of  Sanders'  "History  of  the  He- 
brews" (SHH),  of  Kent's  "Historical  Bible"  (Hist  Bib), 
of  Peritz's  "Old  Testament  History"  (BOTH),  of 
Peake's  "A  Commentary  on  the  Bible"  (P  Com),  and 
of  Barton's  "Religion  of  Israel"  (Bar  RI). 

Introduction 

SHH,  S-19;  Hist  Bib  I,  1-3;  BOTH,  19-40;  P  Com, 
1-17. 

Chapter  I,  Pre-Mosaic  Beginnings 

SHH,  23-48;  Hist  Bib  I,  5-150;  BOTH,  43-63; 
P  Com,  51-57,  63,  82,  83,  133-167;  Bar  RI,  1-55. 

Chapter  II,  Formative  Influence  of  Moses 
SHH,  49-69;  Hist  Bib  I,  151-229;  POTH,  64-95; 
P  Com,  63-64,  84-85,  168-189,  193-194,  196-243 
passim;  ^fisiV  'RI,  56-74;  Breasted,  "History  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians,"  293-344;  "Ancient  Times," 
80-96,  200;  Bible  Dictionary,  "Covenant," 
"Moses." 

Chapter  III,  Gradual  Nationalization 

SHH,  73-119;  Hist  Bib  II,  1-224;  POTH,  96-160; 
P  Com,  26-33,  57,  65-67,  85-86,  100,  111-113, 
256-300;  Bar  RI,  75-84;  Breasted,  "Ancient 
Times,"  200-206;  Fowler,  "Literature  Ancient 
Israel,"  10-65. 

149 


150  APPENDIX 

Chapter  IV,  The  Struggle  with  Phcenician 
Baalism 
SHH,  125-141;  Hist  Bib  III,  1-50,  112-120;  POTH, 
163-173;  P  Com,  58,  67,  73-74,  86-88,  113-114, 
300-308;  Bar  RI,  84-93;  Breasted,  "Ancient 
Times,"  206-208;  Bible  Dictionary,  "Baalism," 
"Elijah  and  Elisha." 

Chapter  V,  The  Peak  of  Hebrew  Greatness 
J      SHH,  141-149;  Hist  Bib  III,  50-52, 121-123;  POTH, 
173-178;  P  Com,   58,   69,   74,   308-309;  Fowler, 
"Literature  Ancient  Israel,"  66-104. 

Chapter  VI,  Assyrian  Aggression  and  Prophetic 
Reinterpretation  of  Religion 
SHH,  149-173;  Hist  Bib  III,  53-111,  123-191; 
POTH,  179-203;  P  Com,  58-59,  69-72,  74,  75, 
88-89,  309-311,  426-430;  Bar  RI,  94-113;  Rogers, 
"History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,"  II,  263-443; 
Breasted,  "Ancient  Times,"  208-212;  Fowler, 
"Literature  Ancient  Israel,"  105-174. 

Chapter  VII,  Judah's  Decline 

SHH,  170-203;  Hist  Bib  III,  192-307;  POTH,  203-- 
215;  P  Com,  60,  72,  73,  89,  90,  312-313;  Bar  RI, 
114-126;  Rogers,  "History  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria," II,  443-523;  Fowler,  "Literature  Ancient 
Israel,"  175-232. 

Chapter  VIII,  The  Exile 

SHH,  207-230;  Hist  Bib  IV,  1-34;  POTH,  217-245; 

P  Com,  47,  60,  61,  77,  90-92,  460-470,  501-503; 
Bar  RI,  127-131;  Rogers,  "History  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,"  523-576;  Breasted,  "Ancient  Times," 
213-220;  Fowler,  "Literature  Ancient  Israel,"  233- 
276. 


APPENDIX  151 

Chapter  IX,  Building  of  the  Second  Temple 
SHH,  231-242;  Hist  Bib  IV,  35-64;  POTH,  246- 
253;  P  Com,  61,  78;  Bar  RI,  131-133;  Fowler, 
"Literature  Ancient  Israel,"  277-286. 

Chapter  X,  The  Establishment  of  Judaism 

SHH,  242-279;  Hist  Bib  IV,  64-145;  POTH,  254- 
277;  P  Com,  48,  78-79,  92-94;  Bar  RI,  133-172; 
Fowler,  "Literature  Ancient  Israel,"  287-336. 

Chapter  XI,  Greek  and  Maccabean  Periods 
SHH,  279-308;  Hist  Bib  IV,  146-274,  278-317; 
P  Com,  48-49,  62,  79-80,  94-97,  271-272,  341-345, 
556-558;  Bar  RI,  173-283;  Breasted,  "Ancient 
Times,"  425-451;  Riggs,  "History  of  Jewish  Peo- 
ple: Maccabean  and  Roman  Periods,"  1-178; 
Fowler,  "Literature  Ancient  Israel,"  337-387. 


IV 

QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW 

1.  What  were  the  organized  nations  of  the  Hebrew 

world  when  that  people  crossed  the  Jordan  into 
Canaan  ? 

2.  During  the  next  thousand  years  what  new  peoples 

entered  that  world  and  disappeared  from  it? 

3.  Why  was  Palestine  so  advantageous  a  home  for 

the  growing  Hebrew  people?  When  and  why 
did  it  cease  to  have  special  significance  for 
them? 

4.  What  varied  factors,  racial  and  rehgious,  had  en- 

tered into  the  making  of  the  Hebrew  people  of 
the  days  of  Samuel,  David,  and  Solomon  ? 

5.  Place  in  order  of  importance  the  six  greatest  per- 

sonalities of  Hebrew  history  up  to  the  Disrup- 
tion in  937  B.  C. 

6.  Prior  to  the  eighth  century  with  its  Assyrian 

dominance  what  three  non-Hebraic  peoples  ex- 
ercised the  most  salutary  influence  upon  the 
Hebrews,  and  how  did  they  do  it? 

7.  Samuel  is  credited  (I  Samuel  15)  with  declaring 

that  the  Hebrew  monarchy  would  be  a  social 
and  religious  detriment.  What  was  the  actual 
fact? 

8.  Besides  the  rulers  what  other  leaders  made  them- 

selves felt  in  shaping  the  national  hfe  of  the 
Hebrews?  Which  group  became  finally  domi- 
nant? 

152 


APPENDIX  153 

9.  What  various  causes  led  to  the  breaking  apart  of 
Solomon's  kingdom?  Compare  the  advan- 
tageous with  the  disastrous  results  of  this  dis- 
ruption. 

10.  When  did  Hebrew  history  in  the  true  sense  of 

the  word  begin? 

11.  Trace  the  story  of  the  growth  of  the  Hebrew  na- 

tional religion  through  its  eight  stages  as  set 
forth  in  the  Old  Testament. 

12.  In  what  two  senses  is  "Baalism"  used  in  the  Old 

Testament  record?  Which  was  the  more 
dangerous  and  why  ? 

13.  Compare  the  share  of  Moses,  Samuel,  Saul,  David, 

and  Solomon  in  creating  Hebrew  nationalism. 

14.  What  gave  the  prophetic  order  its  early  pervasive 

influence  and  what  gave  this  influence  perma- 
nence ? 

15.  Name  the  four  great  empires  which,  prior  to  the 

days  of  Rome,  counted  the  Hebrews  as  a  sub- 
ject people.  Which  of  these  exercised  the 
greatest  influence  upon  them  and  how? 

16.  What  were  the  marked  characteristics  of  the  He- 

brews as  a  people  ?  In  what  sense  is  it  histori- 
cally correct  to  call  them  a  "chosen"  people? 

17.  At  what  period  in  the  life  of  the  Hebrews  did  they 

begin  to  produce  true  literature?  Why  did  it 
appear  at  that  time? 

18.  What  Hebrew  king  was  the  greatest  statesman 

of  them  all?     Justify  your  answer  carefully. 

19.  When  did  the  prophets  begin  to  put  their  utter- 

ances into  written  form  and  for  what  causes? 

20.  What    five    personalities — men    or    women — de- 

scribed in  the  Old  Testament  (other  than  the 
rulers)  impress  the  student  most  because  of 
their  importance  in  Hebrew  history? 


154  APPENDIX 

21.  What  five  personalities  seem  peculiarly  typical  as 

representing  Hebrew  characteristics? 

22.  What  five  personalities  are  most  helpful  to  the  stu- 

dent through  their  experiences.'*  In  each  case 
give  the  reason  for  the  judgment. 

23.  What  kings  of  Assyria  took  a  direct  share  in  shap- 

ing the  destinies  of  the  Hebrew  people  and  how  ? 

24.  The  Northern  kingdom;  How  long  did  it  last, 

what  two  kings  shaped  its  destiny,  and  what 
lasting  legacies  did  it  leave  behind? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  the  Deuteronomic  editing  of 

early  Old  Testament  literature?  Illustrate  by 
some  actual  book  or  passage. 

26.  What  kings  had  most  to  do  with  the  increase  in 

the  material  wealth  of  the  pre-exilic  Hebrews? 

27.  When,  according  to  the  historians,  did  the  Jeru- 

salem priesthood  become  influential  enough  to 
be  able  to  resist  the  throne?  What  influences 
gave  the  priesthood  final  supremacy? 

28.  Name  five  passages  in  the  historical  literature  of 

the  Old  Testament  which  deserve  to  be  rated 
as  great  literature.     Justify  the  choice  of  each. 

29.  How  was  it  that  religion  among  the  Hebrews  dur- 

ing the  last  century  before  the  exile  both  de- 
clined and  became  spiritual? 

30.  Discuss  the  causes  which  brought  about  the  de- 

struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  exile. 

31.  Compare  the  influence  on  the  people  of  the  three 

great  prophetic  leaders  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C. 

32.  What  literary  and  social  renaissance  took  place 

during  the  sixth  century,  through  what  class 
of  leaders,  creating  what  religious  institutions? 

33.  Trace  the  growth  of  Jewish  sacred  law  from  the 

days  of  Moses  to  the  fourth  century  before 
Christ. 


APPENDIX  155 

34.  What  made  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  of 

the  temple  of  such  importance  in  Jewish  life  ? 

35.  Of  the  four  great  Asiatic  sovereigns  who  ruled  the 

Jews  of  Palestine  after  the  exile  which  one  best 
deserves  the  term  "great"? 

36.  How  did  the  Jews  come  to  be  scattered  among  the 

nations?  In  what  way  was  it  either  a  misfor- 
tune or  a  providence? 

37.  What  proportion  of  the  literature  of  the  Old  Tes- 

tament was  probably  produced  after  the  exile  ? 
Name  four  non-prophetical  books  unquestion- 
ably written  later  than  the  sixth  century. 

38.  What  gave  the  Jewish  people  their  remarkable 

and  persistent  resiliency  as  a  despised  and  per- 
secuted people  ? 

39.  Compare  Judaism  with  Hellenism.     Why  could 

they  not  be  friendly  ? 

40.  State  the  causes,  progress,  and  outcome  of  the 

Maccabean  struggle.  What  positive  good  did 
it  do  to  the  Jews? 

41.  Who  were  the  two  greatest  sovereigns  of  the  Mac- 

cabean kingdom;  what  were  the  causes  of  its 
downfall,  and  the  benefits  which  it  brought  to 
Judaism  ? 

42.  Assuming  three  clear  turning-points  in  Hebrew- 

Jewish  history  of  which  the  exile  was  the  third, 
what  were  the  others  between  586  and  63  B.  C.  ? 

43.  Which  of  the  great  eras  of  this  long  twelve  cen- 

turies of  history  seem  on  the  whole  the  most 
significant  ? 

44.  On  which  eras  should  a  student  of  the  Old  Testa- 

ment with  limited  time  concentrate  ? 

45.  Explain  how  the  Old  Testament  religion  of  a  Jere- 

miah and  an  Isaiah  could  be  the  progenitor  of 
both  Christianity  and  of  Rabbinic  Judaism. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  RESEARCH  AND  CLASS 
DISCUSSION 

If  this  book  is  used  as  a  text-book  by  a  class,  the 
leader  may  find  it  profitable  to  devote  the  class  session 
to  the  discussion  of  the  important  themes  connected 
with  each  chapter.  The  following  list  of  topics  for  re- 
search and  class  discussion  are  suggested  as  bringing 
out  some  of  the  most  essential  themes. 

Introduction  and  Chapter  I 

1.  The  ancient  world  about  1200  B.  C.  2.  The  racial 
heritage  of  the  Hebrews.  3.  The  religious  life  of  the  Hebrew 
tribes  before  the  days  of  Moses.  4.  The  historical,  religious, 
and  personal  values  of  the  book  of  Genesis.  5.  The  changes 
which  transform  traditions  into  Scripture. 

Chapter  II 

1.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression.  2.  Evidences  from 
later  Hebrew  history  of  the  reality  of  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt.  3.  The  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  the  He- 
brews: its  meaning  and  its  historical  effect.  4.  Changes 
caused  by  this  covenant  in  the  immediate  life  of  those  who 
came  out  of  Egypt.  5.  Moses :  his  life,  character,  and  place 
in  history. 

Chapter  IH 

1.  What  settlement  in  Canaan  meant  to  the  Hebrew 
tribes.  2.  The  changes  which  two  centuries  of  occupancy 
wrought  in  them.  3.  The  great  leaders  of  these  centuries 
and  the  specific  contribution  of  each.  4.  The  development 
of  Hebrew  morals  and  religion  from  the  Jordan  to  Solomon's 
temple.     5.     The  development  of  a  true  nationalism. 

156 


APPENDIX  157 


Chapter  IV 

1.  The  various  causes  which  brought  about  the  disrup- 
tion. 2.  The  stamp  placed  upon  Israel  by  Jeroboam  and 
the  resultant  differences  between  the  two  kingdoms.  3. 
Baalism,  Phoenician  and  indigenous:  its  attractiveness  and 
its  menace.  4.  The  prophetic  order:  its  leaders,  influence, 
and  service.  5.  The  six  great  men  of  this  century  who 
shaped  the  growth  of  the  kingdoms. 

Chapter  V 

1.  The  undesirable  results  of  the  revolution  under  Jehu 
and  Elisha.  2.  The  work  of  Elisha  for  his  people  in  con- 
trast with  that  of  Elijah.  3.  Aramean  peoples  of  Syria: 
their  origin,  location,  and  the  reason  for  their  period  of  ascen- 
dancy. 4.  The  transformation  of  the  Hebrew  kingdoms  un- 
der Jeroboam  II  and  Uzziah.  5.  The  social,  religious,  and 
political  situation  about  740  B.  C. 

Chapter  VI 

1.  Assyria:  her  rise  Into  dominance  and  relations  with  the 
Hebrew  kingdoms.  2.  The  Northern  kingdom:  causes  of 
its  rapid  decline  and  its  contributions  to  Hebrew  nationalism. 
3.  How  the  four  Hebrew  prophets  of  this  century  saved 
Israel  from  despair  and  atheism.  4.  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah  as 
statesmen.  5.  Hebrew  literature:  its  progress  at  the  end  of 
the  eighth  century. 

Chapter  VII 

1.  The  rise  of  three  great  kingdoms  to  rival  Assyria  and 
the  final  dominance  of  Babylonia.  2.  Causes  leading  to  the 
Deuteronomic  revival  in  Judah  and  the  important  outcome. 
3.  The  political  decline  of  Judah  and  the  parallel  rise  of  re- 
ligious insight.  4.  Jeremiah  compared  with  Isaiah  as  a 
statesman.    5.     Josiah's  place  in  Hebrew  history. 

Chapter  VHI 

1.  The  changes  In  Hebrew  life  and  thought  brought  about 
by  the  exile.  2.  The  literature  of  the  Old  Testament  as 
produced  or  revised  by  the  end  of  the  exile.  3.  The  two 
great  prophetic  leaders  of  the  exile  and  their  contributions. 


158  APPENDIX 

4.     Nebuchadrezzar  compared  with  Cyrus.     5.     The  most 
momentous  change  brought  about  by  the  exile. 

Chapter  IX 

1.  Darius  as  a  statesman.  2.  The  Jewish  Messianic 
hope  as  affected  by  Persian  pohcies.  3.  The  value  of  the 
book  of  Ezra  as  history.  4.  Palestine  as  parcelled  out  in 
the  days  of  Darius.  5.  The  significance  of  the  Second  Tem- 
ple to  the  Jewish  race. 

Chapter  X 

1.  The  old  and  the  new  in  the  Judaism  advocated  by 
Ezra.  2.  Nehemiah  as  a  typical  Jew.  3.  The  racial  sig- 
nificance of  a  rebuilt  and  defensible  Jerusalem.  4.  The 
Samaritans:  origin,  claims,  and  religious  history  during  this 
period.  5.  The  literature  of  the  age.  6.  Judaism  as  a 
religious  life. 

Chapter  XI 

1 .  Alexander  the  Great :  his  career,  ambitions,  and  achieve- 
ments. 2.  Reasons  for  an  inevitable  conflict  between  Ju- 
daism and  Hellenism.  3.  What  the  Maccabean  regime  did 
for  Judaism  and  the  Jews  of  the  larger  world.  4.  The  litera- 
ture of  the  age.  5.  Why  apocalypse  became  substituted  for 
prophecy.  6.  The  two  religious  tendencies  of  the  Judaism 
of  the  second  century. 

Chapter  XII 

1.  The  men  who  really  shaped  Hebrew  history.  2.  The 
various  types  of  literature  to  be  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 
3.  The  Hebrew  historical  records  as  compared  with  other 
early  historical  records.  4.  The  unique  elements  in  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Hebrews.  5.  The  permanent  place  of  the  He- 
brew race  in  world  history. 


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